Ancient, Medieval, and Modern Civilizations: Key Innovations and Contributors

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards summarizing key terms, inventions, and contributors from ancient civilizations through modern times, including significant Philippine developments.

Cuneiform

Sumerian writing system composed of wedge-shaped symbols.

Sexagesimal System

Base-60 system used by Sumerians for counting and place notation.

Ziggurat

Terraced temple structure known as the “Mountain of God.”

Wheeled Vehicle

Sumerian cart with solid wooden wheels on axles; early mechanical breakthrough.

Seed Plow

Sumerian farming implement that planted seeds efficiently.

Sail Boat

Wind-powered vessel enabling Sumerian river and sea travel.

Irrigation Canals

Sumerian network of canals, dikes, and reservoirs for water management.

City of Uruk

First true city in recorded history, located in Sumer.

Code of Ur-Nammu

Oldest surviving written law code from Sumer.

Copper Fabrication

Early Sumerian practice of working copper into tools and ornaments.

360-Degree Circle

Sumerian division of the circle that influences geometry today.

Zodiacal Map of Sumer

Early celestial chart for mathematical and observational purposes.

Hanging Gardens

Terraced gardens of Babylon ordered by Nebuchadnezzar II.

Ishtar Gate

Glazed-brick ceremonial gate of ancient Babylon.

Code of Hammurabi

One of the earliest and most complete written legal codes.

Babylonian Map of the World

First known representation of the world on a map.

Double-Entry Bookkeeping

Babylonian accounting system recording debits and credits.

Babylonian Astronomy

Science that enabled prediction of solar and lunar eclipses.

Zodiac Signs

Astrological band of constellations originated by Babylonians.

Jewelry Making

Decorative art form pioneered in Babylonian culture.

Hieroglyphics

Egyptian pictorial writing system.

Papyrus

Paper-like writing material made from papyrus reeds.

Sirius-Based Calendar

Egyptian 365-day calendar tied to the heliacal rising of Sirius.

Water Clock

Conical vessel used by Egyptians to measure hours using water flow.

Pyramid

Monumental Egyptian stone tomb such as that of Khufu.

Great Sphinx

Massive limestone statue guarding the Giza pyramids.

Embalming

Egyptian mummification process based on anatomical knowledge.

Wig and Henna

Hair adornment and coloring practices of Egyptian nobility.

Kohl

Cosmetic eye powder used for beauty and eye-disease prevention.

Obelisk

Tall, tapering stone monument erected by Egyptians.

Ramp and Lever

Simple machines Egyptians used to move huge construction blocks.

Rope Truss

Technique for stiffening ship beams with rope bindings.

Lighthouse of Alexandria

Hellenistic beacon guiding ships into Alexandria’s harbor.

Library of Alexandria

Ancient center of scholarship and learning in Egypt.

Birthplace of Western Philosophy

Epithet for Greece reflecting its pioneering role in rational thought.

Bronze-to-Iron Transition

Metallurgical shift in Ancient Greece from bronze to iron tools.

Alarm Clock

Greek device using water, stones, or sand to sound an alarm.

Watermill

Greek-invented mill using water power to grind grain.

Logical Inquiry

Greek method of explaining natural phenomena through reasoned theories.

Galen

Greek physician who advanced the study of anatomy.

Hippocrates

“Father of Medicine” who viewed disease as having natural causes.

Four Elements Theory

Empedocles’ idea that nature is made of Earth, Air, Fire, Water.

Thales of Miletus

Early philosopher who proposed water as the fundamental substance.

Anaxagoras

Philosopher who said matter consists of countless tiny particles.

Aristotle

Greek thinker who emphasized observation and classification of organisms.

Euclid

Mathematician who systemized geometry into a logical framework.

Archimedes

Scientist who formulated laws of lever, buoyancy, and invented devices.

Geocentric Theory

Ptolemy’s Earth-centered model of the universe.

Almagest

Ptolemy’s seminal astronomical treatise.

Gazette

Roman carved-stone newspaper containing public announcements.

Codex

First bound Roman book format replacing scrolls.

Roman Numerals

Numeric notation system employing letters I, V, X, L, C, D, M.

Pantheon

Domed Roman temple dedicated to all gods.

Colosseum

Roman amphitheater that seated around 50,000 spectators.

Circus Maximus

Massive Roman arena for chariot races.

Aqueduct

Roman engineered channel transporting water to cities.

Odometer

Distance-measuring device described by Vitruvius.

Anaximander’s World Map

Early Greek cartographic representation of the known world.

Arabic Numerals

Decimal number symbols 0-9 introduced by Arabs.

Alchemy

Proto-chemical practice aiming to transmute base metals into gold.

Glass Lens

First magnifying lenses developed by Arab scientists.

Black Powder

Early explosive compound manufactured by Arab chemists.

Hand Cannon

Primitive firearm: bamboo tube reinforced with iron and gunpowder.

Silk Production

Chinese sericulture technology for making silk fabric.

Bronze Vessels

Magnificent ritual bronzes of China’s Shang Dynasty.

Lacquer

Durable varnish discovered by ancient Chinese artisans.

Oracle Bone

Animal bone or shell used for Shang-era divination and writing.

Chopsticks

Simple eating utensils originating in China.

Escapement

Clock mechanism regulating the release of energy and timekeeping.

Great Wall of China

Extensive defensive fortification built by successive Chinese dynasties.

Acupuncture

Traditional Chinese therapy inserting needles at specific points.

Seismograph

Chinese “earthquake weathercock” detector for seismic activity.

Toilet Paper

Paper hygiene product traced back to 6th-century China.

Block Printing

Woodblock technique for reproducing texts and images.

Movable Type Printing

Ceramic movable characters invented by Bi Sheng.

Gunpowder

Explosive mixture of saltpeter, sulfur, and charcoal developed in China.

Magnetic Compass

Navigation tool using a magnetized needle floating or mounted on a pivot.

Coal Fuel

Chinese use of coal for heating and metallurgy.

Wheelbarrow

One-wheel handcart for transporting loads invented in China.

Bamboo Carrying Pole

Flexible pole used to balance and carry loads across shoulders.

Porcelain

Fine, high-fired ceramic ware perfected by Chinese potters.

Tea Culture

Cultivation and ceremonial use of tea originating in China.

Waterwheel

Hydraulic device converting water flow into mechanical power.

Urban Sanitation

Indus system of baths, drains, and piped water in every house.

Ayurvedic Medicine

Traditional Indian medical system based on herbs and balance.

Plastic Surgery

Early reconstructive operations practiced in ancient India.

Zero

Indian concept of nothingness as a numerical value.

Pi to Nine Decimals

Indian calculation of π accurate to nine decimal places.

Calculus Foundations

Indian development of sine tables and early calculus concepts.

Iron Pillar of Delhi

Rust-resistant wrought iron monument from Gupta period.

Stupa

Buddhist dome-shaped structure housing sacred relics.

Persian Coinage

Uniform gold (daric) and silver (siglos) monetary system.

Royal Postal System

First regular courier network established by Persians.

Achaemenid Taxation

Structured revenue-raising system of the Persian Empire.

Qanat

Persian gently sloping underground channel for irrigation.

Sulfuric Acid

Strong acid first identified by al-Razi in Persia.

Dark Ages

Early medieval period following the fall of Rome.

Gutenberg Printing Press

Movable-type press that revolutionized book production.

Gunpowder Weapons

Medieval cannons, fire-lances, and explosives.

Watermill Power

Rotary watermill used as primary industrial energy source.