Psychological Perspectives & Research Methods Vocabulary

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering major psychological perspectives and foundational research-method terms from the lecture notes.

Humanist Perspective

Approach emphasizing free will, personal growth, and the pursuit of needs as described by Maslow and Rogers.

Psychodynamic Perspective

View that unconscious motives and repressed memories drive thoughts and actions; rooted in psychoanalysis.

Biopsychology (Neuroscience) Perspective

Explains cognition and behavior through genes, hormones, neurotransmitters, and brain structures.

Evolutionary (Darwinian) Perspective

Analyzes thoughts and behaviors as adaptations that aided ancestral survival and were passed on by natural selection.

Behavioral Perspective

Studies observable behavior and explains it through conditioning, rewards, and punishments.

Cognitive Perspective

Focuses on how people interpret, process, and remember environmental events.

Social-Cultural Perspective

Examines how culture influences the way we think and act.

Biopsychosocial Perspective

Integrates biological, psychological, and social factors to explain behavior.

Eclectic Approach

Using multiple psychological perspectives as needed to explain behavior.

Unconscious Mind

Portion of the mind outside conscious awareness that influences behavior, central to psychodynamic theory.

Free Will

Humanistic belief that individuals actively choose their behaviors.

Natural Selection

Darwin’s principle that traits aiding survival are more likely to be passed to offspring.

Conditioning

Process by which behavior is learned through associations with stimuli or consequences.

Experimental Method

Research design involving manipulation of an independent variable to establish cause-and-effect.

Correlational Method

Research measuring the relationship between two variables without manipulating them.

Naturalistic Observation

Unobtrusive recording of behavior in participants’ natural environments without interference.

Case Study

In-depth investigation of a single individual or small group to obtain detailed information.

Hindsight Bias

Tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one ‘knew it all along.’

Confirmation Bias

Preference for information that supports preexisting beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Overconfidence

Tendency to be more certain of one’s judgments than accuracy warrants.

Quantitative Research

Studies that collect numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative Research

Studies that collect rich, non-numerical data (e.g., interviews, open-ended responses) for thematic analysis.

Hypothesis

Testable prediction stating a relationship between variables.

Independent Variable

Factor manipulated by the researcher to examine its effect.

Dependent Variable

Outcome measured to see the impact of the independent variable.

Falsifiable

Quality of a hypothesis that allows it to be disproven by data.

Operational Definition

Exact description of how variables are measured or manipulated in a study.

Validity

Extent to which research measures what it intends to measure (accuracy).

Reliability

Consistency of research results when replicated.

Population

Entire group from which a sample is drawn for a study.

Sample

Subset of a population actually participating in a study.

Representative Sample

Sample whose composition reflects important characteristics of the population.

Random Sampling

Selection method giving every member of the population an equal chance to participate.

Convenience Sampling

Selecting participants who are readily available, not randomly chosen.

Stratified Sampling

Sampling technique ensuring the sample reflects certain population subgroups in proper proportions.

Confounding Variable

Any uncontrolled factor differing between groups that could influence the dependent variable.

Random Assignment

Placing participants into experimental or control groups by chance to equalize groups.

Group Matching

Assigning participants so groups are equivalent on a specific characteristic (e.g., sex, IQ).

Experimenter Bias

Unconscious tendency of researchers to treat groups differently to confirm expectations.

Double-Blind Study

Procedure in which neither participants nor researchers know who is in the experimental or control group.

Single-Blind Study

Procedure in which participants, but not researchers, are unaware of their group assignment.

Social Desirability Bias

Participants’ tendency to give answers that make them look good.

Experimental Group

Participants who receive the treatment or independent variable.

Control Group

Participants who do not receive the independent variable; basis for comparison.

Placebo Method

Using an inert treatment with the control group when the experimental group ingests a drug.

Placebo Effect

Improvement resulting from participants’ expectations rather than the treatment itself.

Positive Correlation

Relationship in which increases in one variable accompany increases in another.

Negative Correlation

Relationship in which increases in one variable accompany decreases in another.

Directionality Problem

In correlational research, inability to know which variable came first.

Third Variable Problem

Possibility that an unmeasured factor causes the observed correlation between two variables.

Spurious Correlation

Apparent relationship between variables actually caused by a third factor.

Likert Scale

Survey format asking respondents to rate agreement with statements on a multi-point scale.

Ex Post Facto (Quasi-Experimental) Study

Research comparing groups with preexisting differences; lacks random assignment of independent variable.

Structured Interview

Interview with a fixed set and order of questions, sometimes yielding quantitative data.

Order Effects

Changes in participants’ performance caused by the sequence of conditions rather than the treatments themselves.

Counterbalancing

Method of controlling order effects by varying the sequence of conditions for different participants.

Hawthorne Effect

Phenomenon where individuals alter behavior simply because they are being studied.