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MALT (mucosal assocaited lymphooid tissue

* nodules at frequent entre points for antigens
* tonsils
* peyer patch (small intestines)

components of lymphatic system

* lymph vessels
* lymph nodes
* spleen
* thymus
* tonsils
* lymphocytes
* peyer’s patches

lymph fluid

identitcal to interstitial fluid

lymph nodes

* monitorying lymph fluid
* traps microbes for destrictuon

lymph vessels

* absorb protein and water from interstitum and transport it to cardiovascular circualtion
* from intestines = absorb protein, fat and fat soluble vitamins

lymphocytes

* white blood cells
* stored in lymph nodes
* ability to recognize foreign cells, substances, microbes and respond (destroy or eliminate)

lymphatic connection

* lymphatic system runs parallel to CV system
* maintains fluid balancce by returning interstitial fluid to venous side of CV system
* assists CV system in distrubuting nutrients and hormones, and removal of waste products from tissues
* help to prevent infection and disease by utilizing lymphocytes

lymph nodes

* filters material (branching causes slowing of fluid allowing increased success of phaocytosis)
* storage (WBC)
* regulation of protein concentration

edema prevention

* lymphatic system transports fluid from tissue back into system circulation to prevent fluid accumulation (edema) in tissues

lacteals

* lymph capillaries of small intestine
* absorb fat and fat soluble vitamins

fluid exchange at the blood capillary

* diffusion = important processs for nourishment of the tissues

starling forces (reabsorption

* reabsorption = flow of fluids from interstitium to the capillaries (direction = dependent on difference in pressure)
* pressure at play
* blood capillary pressure/hyrdrostatic pressure
* plasma colloid osmotic pressure
* interstitial fluid pressure
* interstitial fluid colloid osmotic pressure

albumin

* protein produced in the liver
* moves small molecules through the bloodstream (CA)
* maintains osmotic pressure (keeps fluid from leaking out into the tissues
* plasma protein

cardiovascular system

* heart, blood, blood vessels
* four main functions
* transport blood through body
* pump other substances along with blood
* facilitate delivery of vital materials to cells/pick up cellular waste
* parallel circulation (lymphatic system)

blood

* connective tissue
* transportation of oxygen and nutrients
* clot formation
* fighting infection
* clearing waste products
* regulating body temperature

Type 1 blood type

* very common
* “A” represents a specific type of “self” antigen found on the cell membrane of the RBC → anti B antibodies

Type B blood

* possess type B antigens
* plasma contains anti-A antibodies

Type AB Blood

* contains both A and B self antigens
* has niether A nor B antibodies in the plasma
* universal recipients

Type O blood

* contain no A or B antigens, but its plasma contains both A and B antibodies
* universal donor

Components of Blood

* plasma
* erythrocytes (RBC)
* Leukocytes (WBC)
* Thrombocytes (platelets)

Plasma

* mixture of water, sugar, fats, proteins, and salts (mainly water)
* main role: transportation

erythrocytes

* R
* biconcave disc with main role of carrying oxygen from the lugs to the body and returning CO2 to the lungs
* production controlled by kidney hormone: erythropoietin
* produced in bone marrow of long bones
* 7 days to mature being released into blood stream
* do not have nucleus
* lack of nucleus limits life of cell (only lasts about 120 days)

erythropoietin

kidney hormone that controls production of RBC

RBC regulation: kidneys

* kidney cells become hypoxic → increase in synthesis of erythropioetin
* testosterone also enhances production

RBC regulation: diet

* two B vitmains: folic acid and vitamin B12

RBC regulation: destruction

* iron is salvaged
* heme group is degraded to bilirubin and secreted in bile

Leukocytes WBC

* protect from infection
* granulocytes and agranulocytes

granulocyte: neutrophils

attack bacteria

granulocytes: eosinophils

attack parasitic worms

granulocytes: basophils

histamine producing

agranulocytes: lymphocytes

t cells: virus and tumor cells

B cells: produce antibodies

agranulocytes: monocytes

macrophagic activity

platelets

* not true cells
* responsible for coagulation (clotting)

platelet steps

1. vascular spasm ( allows time for next steps to occur)
2. platelet plug formation (loosely knit plug)
3. coagulation

blood clotting

* inner wall of vessel is damaged → an underlying collagen fiber is exposed
* platelets floating become attached to the rough site
* attached platelets release several chemicals that draw more platelets to create a plug
* platelets secrete serotonin to cause blood vessels to spasm → decrease blood flow
* within 15 seconds, blood clot coagulation begins
* calcium ions + 11 different plasma proteins → chain reaction starts
* prothrombin (clotting protein) produced by the liver with the help of vitamin K is converted to thrombin
* thrombin makes fibrinogen that is dissolved in the blood into an insoluble, hair like form (FIBRIN)
* fibrin = net like patch at the site of the injury, snagging more blood cells and platelets
* 3-6 minutes, clot is created

heart

four chambered organ

* right side = deoxygenated
* left side = oxygenated

three layers to heart wall

fibrous skeleton

endocardium

thin internal layer also covering valves

epthelium that lines the heart

myocardium

thick middle layer - cardiac muscle

epicardium

thin external layer

same layer as visceral pericardium

fibrous skeleton

* anchors the cardiac muscles
* keeps the orifices patent
* electrical insulator

right atrium

* receives venous blood from superior and inferior vena cava
* discharges poorly oxygenated blood into right ventricle

right ventricle

* receives blood from the right atrium through the right AV valve (tricuspid valve)
* valve control
* tendinous cords arise from papillary muscles
* contracts prior to ventricular contraction to prevent backflow from RV to RA
* blood exists via pulmonary valve to the pulmonary artery

left atrium

* oxygenated blood enters from the pulmonary vein
* discharges blood into the left ventricle

left ventricle

* blood enters from LA through the mitral valve
* exits via semilunar aortic valve

skeletal muscle

structure: long cylindrical fiber, striated, many peripherally located nuclei

function: voluntary movement, produces heat, protects organs

location: attached to bones and around entry and exit site of body

cardiac muscle

structure: short, branched, striated, single central nucleus

function: contracts to pump blood

location: heart

smooth muscle

structural: short, spingle shaped, no evident striation, single nucleus in each fiber

function: involvuntary movement, moves food, involuntary control of respiration, moves secretions, regulates flow of blood in arteries by contrraction

location: walls of major organs and passageways

cardiac control: SA

(sinoatrial node) sets pace for the whole heart at around 70 BPM

cardiac control: AV node

delays impulse from SA node by about .1 second

* allows completion of atrial contraction prior to ventricular contraction

cardiac control: AV bundle (bundle of his)

only electrical connection from atria to ventricles

* signal is propagated via gap junctions in atria however the atria and ventricles are not connected via gap junction

AV bundle splits into right and left branches

cardiac control: purkinje fibers

completes the pathway

cardiac cycle

* the movements of the heart; dived into two phases: systole and diastole
* both atria and ventricles undergo systole and diastole, but usally when discussing heart movement, we refer to ventricular activity

Systole

contraction of a chamber: the chamber is pumping blood out of the chamber

diastole

relaxation; the chamber is filling with blood

systole + diastole can be seperated into…

atrial and ventricular

function of atria during systole

* at rest
* atria contract and push final 25-30% of blood from atrium to ventricles (atrial kick)
* during exercise
* atria assume greater role b/c blood must be pushed to ventricles more quickly
* therefore, problems with atrial function may emerge during increased exercise

function of ventricles during systole

* right ventricle
* only needs to pump blood to lungs
* resistance in pulm. A fairlow low (

end diastolic volume

ventricles are relatively full (110-120 ml per ventricle

end systolic volume

ventricles have just finished contracting and are relatively empty (40-50 ml)

stroke volume

how much blood was pumped out during systole

SV = EDV - ESV

approx 70 ml

ejection fraction

* fraction of blood ejected from relatively full ventricle
* EF = SV/EDV x 100
* nromal resting ejection fraction approx 60%
* < 35% is considered heart failure (with reduced EF)

bonus question: compare and contrast ACA, MCA, and PCA stroke, which is most common?

circulation overview

artery → arteriole → capillary → venule → vein

tunica intima

* made up of endothelium
* minimizes friction

tunica media

* muscular layer
* smooth muscle
* vasoconstriction: decrease in diameter
* vasodilation: increase in diameter

tunica externa

loosely woven collagen fibers

contrain vasa vasorum

elastic arteries

* more central
* conducting arteries
* presence of increased elastin allows for stretching of artery
* continuous flow of blood

muscular arteries

* more distal
* more active in vasoconstriction

arterioles

determines blood flow into capilaries

capillaries

* responsible for exchange from blood to tissue and vice versa
* gaps in junctions called intercellular clefts
* capillary bed
* 10-20 capillaries are supplied from one arteriole
* can be biased or flooded depending on local conditions

intrinsic/local regulation of blood flow: metabolic

* byproduct from usage causes vasodialation
* low 02, increased H+ (due to lactic acid) nitric oxide
* byproducts of inflammation causes vasodilation

veins

relatively little smooth muscle

* act as a blood reservoir
* contains up to 65% of blood in the body

pressure in a vein is lower than artey

* adaptation of valve
* prevents backflow
* resemble semilunar valve in heart

venous blood flow

* up vein → venous valve (closed)
* blood flow in from contracted skeletal muscle
* through venous valve (open)

anastomosis

A procedure to connect healthy sections of tubular structures in the body after the diseased portion has been surgically removed

ACA

supplies the medial and superior parts of the frontal lobe and the anterior parietal lobe

MCA artery

blood to lateral side areas of the frontal, temporal and parietal lobes

PCA artery

occipital lobe, the inferior part of the temporal lobe, and various deep structures including the thalamus and the posterior limb of the internal capsule

heart location

thorax (middle mediastinum)

bordered by:

* lungs (laterally)
* diaphragm (inferiorly)
* sternum (anteriorly)
* great vessels (superiorly)
* esophagus (posteriorly)

pericardium

* layer of the heart
* fibrous layer
* parietal layer
* space/cavity
* visceral layer (epicardium)
* myocardium (heart muscle)
* endocardium (inner layer, wall of heart chambers)

four chambers

* right atrium
* right ventricle
* left atrium
* left ventricle
* (small upper chambers = atria)
* large lower chambers = ventricles
* no mixing of blood from left and right

interatrial septum

wall that seperates the two atria

interventricular septum

wall between the ventricles

atrial walls

thinner than the ventricular walls

higher pressures are generated in the ventricles to move blood

left ventricle

* thicker than the walls of the right ventricle because it pumps blood throughout the entire body
* right ventricle only pumps blood to the lungs

superior vena cava

* blood from the head, neck, chest, and upper extremities

inferior vena cava

* blood from the trunk, organs, abdomen, pelvic region, and lower extremities

pulmonary veins

bring blood back to the left atrium

pulmonary trunk

carries blood from the right ventricle to the lungs

aorta

carries blood from the left ventricle to the body

atrioventricular (AV) valves

* between each atrium and the ventricle on the same side
* right = tricuspid valve = three cusps
* left = bicuspid = mitral valve

semilunar valves

* between ventricles and large arteries that carry blood away from the heart
* the pulmonary semilunar valve is on the right
* aortic semilunar valve = left

coronary vessels

* arise just above aortic valve (sinus of Valsalva)
* two main arteries
* right coronary artery
* left coronary artery
* left anterior descending (LAD)
* left circumflex (LCX)

coronary circulation: RCA

supplies R atrium, R ventricle, inferior wall L ventricle

coronary circulation: LAD

anterior wall L ventricle

coronary ventricle: LCX

L atrium; lat & post walls L ventricle

SA node: RCA + LCX

RCA 55% of pop

LCX 45%

coronary veins

parallel arterial supply

how valves work

* right ventricle = full of blood → ventricle contracts
* one way tricuspid valve shuts as right ventricular pressure increases to prevent flowback
* pressure increase → pulmonary semilunar valve to the pulmonary trunk

cardiac output

* amount of blood pumped per minute
* amount of blood leaving either left or right ventricle
* normal CO (liters/min)
* CO = stroke volume x heart rate
* trained heart usually has a lower HR but higher SV

heart innervation: suppled by autonomic nerve fibers from cardiac plexus

* contains sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers
* visceral fibers: for pain and reflexive information