BIOL 2111-02 Chapter 2: Chemistry and Organ Systems

(Chemistry: Atoms, Chemical Bonds, Organic Compounds (Macromolecules), Acid and Base, PH value, Hydrogen Ions) (Organ Systems: Digestive, Skeletal, Lymphatic/Immune, Endocrine, Integumentary/Skin, Muscular, Cardiovascular, Respiratory, Reproductive, Nervous, Urinary)

Digestive System

Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood which distribute to the body and cells. Indigestible food exits the body as waste (feces).

Skeletal System

Acts a framework for movement, protects and supports organs, and store minerals.

Lymphatic/Immune System

Houses the white blood cells and attacks against foreign substances.

Endocrine System

A system built up of glands that regulate growth, reproduction, and nutrients (metabolism).

Integumentary System

The body’s cover/shield to protect from deep tissue injury. The system creates Vitamin D, and has receptors which regulate sweat and oil glands.

Muscular System

The ability to move and manipulate the environment through motion and facial expressions. The system helps maintain posture and provides heat.

Cardiovascular System

Blood vessels transport and pump blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and waste to the body.

Respiratory System

System which brings the body oxygen and disposes carbon dioxide to the enviornment as waste.

Reproductive System

The system works to produce offspring. - Females feed offspring with milk from mammary glands.

Nervous System

A fast acting control center that helps regulate homeostasis.

Urinary System

The system which helps get rid of nitrogenous waste from the body. It regulates water, electrolytes, and pH levels in the body.

Organs in the Digestive System

Oral Cavity, Esophagus, Small Intestines, Large Intestines

Organs in the Skeletal System

Bones and Joints

Organs in the Lymphatic/Immune System

Red bone marrow, thymus gland, lymphatic vessels, spleen, and lymph nodes.

Organs in the Endocrine System

Pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas, and gonads.

Organs in the Integumentary/Skin System

Skin, hair, and nails.

Organs in the Muscular System

Skeletal Muscles.

Organs in the Cardiovascular System

Heart and Blood Vessels.

Organs in the Respiratory System

Right and left pleural cavities, right and left lungs, nose, trachea, right and left bronchi.

Organs in the Nervous System

Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerves,

Organs in the Urinary System

Kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, and urethra.

What regulates the Acid-Base balance in humans?

Kidney and lungs, chemical buffers

Buffers

Balances, controls, and resists abrupt and major pH changes in the body by releasing Hydrongen Ions.

Functions of the Ovaries

Produce and store the female sex cells.

Right and left Ovary

Small dark bodies that are superior to the uterine horns.

Animals: Right and Left Uterine Horns

Two tubes extend upward and lateral from the bottom pelvis to form the body of the uterus.

Functions of the Prostate Gland

Produces seminal fluid

Male Reproductive System

Scrotum, Epididymis, Ductus Deferens, Seminal Vesicles, Prostate Glands, Penis, and the Urethral Orifice.

Prostate Gland

Located inferior to the urinary bladder.

Functions of the Seminal Vesicles

Seminal fluid is produced to help suspend sperm during ejaculation.

Right and Left Seminal Vesicle

Irregular in surface structure and located on either side of the bladder.

Functions of the Ductus Deferens

During ejaculation, sperm are transported from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct.

Functions of the Epididymis

Works as mobility for sperm.

Right and Left Ductus Deferens

Tubes that carry sperm from the epididymis up into the abdominal cavity and into the urethra.

Right and Left Epididymis

A comma-shaped sac-like structure which begins at the superior end of the testis to the inferior end.

Functions of the testes

Produce sperm, male gametes, and testosterone.

Right and Left Testes

Found inside the scrotum and sits inferior to the epididymis

Right and Left Scrotum

Double sac of skin anterior to the anus which holds the testes and epididymis.

Function of the Urinary Bladder

Stores urine.

Urinary Bladder

Muscular sac located in the lower region of the abdominopelvic cavity on the midline of the body.

Function of the Ureter

Moving urine from each kidney to the urinary bladder.

Start to Finish Order: Urinary System

Kidneys, Ureter, Urinary Bladder, Urethra

Right and Left Ureter

Usually hidden in the fat of the dorsal abdominal wall. They extend from the medial region of each kidney to the inferior portion of the urinary bladder.

Functions of the Adrenal Gland.

Produce adrenaline and other hormones needed to regulate homeostasis.

Right and Left Adrenal Gland

Located superior to the kidneys.

Functions of the Kidney

Maintain the body’s internal environment by regulating water volume, concentration of ions, acid-base balance, and form and excrete urine.

Right and Left Kidney

Located on the dorsal wall of the abdomen on the sides of the spine.

Function of the large intestine.

Formation of feces and removal of wastes from the body.

Rectum

The terminal short end of the tube that leads to the anal canal and the external opening.

Functions of the Mesentery

Reduces friction in the small intestines, carries blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves to and from the inside.

Mesentery

Thin, yellowish, fan-shaped membrane which holds the small intestines together and to the posterior abdominial wall.

Unlike Humans…

… Rats do not have an appendix, sigmoid colon, and gallbladder.

order of the Large Intestine

Cecum, ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid, rectum, anal canal, anus.

Ileum

The last segment of the small intestine which empties digested materials into the cecum (large intestine)

Jejunum

Middle segment of the small intestine.

Appendix

Hangs off of the cecum.

Duodenum

The first part and shortest section of the small intestine.

Order of the small intestine.

Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum.

Function of the spleen

Filters the blood and removes debris, old/damaged red blood cells, and pathogens.

Spleen

Is located lateral and dorsal to the stomach.

Functions of the Greater Omentum

Fat storage and immune functions.

Greater Omentum

A physically yellow fat which begins at the inferior boarder of the stomach and turns upwards to the transverse colon near the duodenum.

Functions of the Liver

Manufactures bile, selectively removes and reintroduces nutrients into the blood, removes toxins, and produces needed proteins and carbohydrates.

Liver

Takes up most of the anterior portion of the abdominal cavity.

Thymus Gland

Large and brown-colored organ located in the mediastinum and sits superior to the heart.

Pericardium

The region of the Heart

Subdivisions of the Thoracic Cavity

Two lateral pleural cavities, mediastinum, pericardial cavity, and the thymus gland.

Esophagus

Sits posterior to the upper trachea, begins near the larynx and ends at the stomach, and is physically small in diameter and long.

Thyroid Gland

Small tissue attached to the lateral sides of the trachea and inferior to the larynx.

Trachea

Long and ribbed tube that’s inferior to the larynx which moves air in and out of the body.

Larynx

Named the “voice-box,” and is located superior and anterior of the esophagus in the cervical cavity.

Anatomy of the Cervical Cavity

Larynx, Thyroid Gland, Trachea, and Esophagus.

Atoms are the…

Unique building block of elements.

96% of the body weight is made of…

Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Oxygen.

Determines the element

Changing the number of protons

Forms isotopes

Changing the number of neutrons

Forms an Ion (Cation or Anion)

Changing the number of electrons.

Cation

An atom loses an electron, so its charge is positive.

Anion

An atom gains an electron, so its charge in negative.

Chemical bonds are…

Energy relationships between ELECTRONS.

Ionic Bonds

Atoms that TRANSFER electrons from one atom to another… The end charge is neutral.

Ionic bonds in water…

Salts dissociate and break in water, forming electrolytes.

Covalent Bonds

Atoms SHARING electrons by filling valence shells (nonpolar or polar)

Polar Covalent Bonds

Atoms SHARE electrons UNEQUALLY.

Nonpolar covalent bonds

Atoms SHARE electrons EQUALLY.

Covalent bonds in water…

No separation occurs. The only way to break through covalent bonds is through the use of an enzyme or ATP.

4 Macromolecules

Carbohydrates, Lipids, Nucleic Acid, Proteins

Carbohydrate’s Function

Energy STORAGE and SOURCE (ATP)

Carbohydrate Structure

Building Blocks made of Monomers

Subtypes of Monosaccharides

Glucose, Fructose, Ribose, Deoxyribose, Galactose

Subtypes of Diasaccharides

Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose

Glycogen, Starch, Fiber

Subtypes of Polyssacharides

Two polysaccharides that are digestible in animals

Glycogen and Starch

Polysaccharide found in plants

Fiber

Polysaccharide found in the liver

Glycogen

Variation of Proteins

Enzymes

The function of enzymes

Acts as a biological catalyst which speeds up a chemical reaction with less activation energy, stabilizing it.

Characteristics of an Enzyme

Substrate Specific, Enzyme unchanged after a reaction, Reaction is reversable

Two Protein Types

Fibrous and Globular

Structure of Fibrous Proteins

Extended and Strand-like, water insoluble, and more stable