Anthropology Exam 2

neoclassical economists 

economy=exchange of goods/services and division of labor (assumes rational actors, cooperation of labor, and competition for limited resources; driven by self interest 

substantivists

economy=actual transactions to acquire what individuals need/desire (assumes that kinship, religion, and the state impact economies)

marxists

economies=include natural cycles (assumes that different modes of economy rise and fall, also assumes that some economies are exploitative of the surplus value of labor)

cultural economists

economy=is a part of culture and not always rational (assumes local mores and social structures are important in guiding economic acts)

prestige economies

people participate to establish or maintain their rank, prestige, and power rather than for a direct material benefit for the individual or group

balanced reciprocity

exchanges that are roughly equal in value and are exchanged at specific intervals or for specialized purposes

-examples include giving gifts at weddings and birthdays, exchanging invitations, or buying rounds of drinks

kula 

a ritualized pattern of delayed gift giving involving the exchange of many items including necklaces (clockwise) and armbands/bracelets (counterclockwise)

-from people in the Trobriand Islands 

-exchanged between trading partners 

-when an item does not get returned or replaced, a possible break or change in the social chain may be recognized as a possible cause 

negative reciprocity

where people attempt to get the better deal or create debts for others

-includes haggling and is used in societies with no money to acquire nonlocal goods

generalized reciprocity

signifies the closest social ties; tends to be very generous and not requiring anything in return

-examples include the Inuits sharing a walrus meal 

social distance

the degree to which cultural norms specify that individuals or groups should be helpful to, intimate with, or emotionally attached to one another

-indicates the social relationship between the participants

tribute 

the rendering of services and/or resources (including foods, labor, exotic items) to an authority, such as a chief, to be reallocated 

taxes

monies (money) are collected and used ideally to support/benefit the community, or to create/maintain public works and interests

households

resources, including labor, may be organized by a central authority

moka

an investment system that is focused on the willingness to go into debt; honor and status based

-most visible symbols are pigs; titles of “Big Men” and “Big Women” are important; occurs every 10-12 years

-follows the example of negative reciprocity

-PAPUA NEW GUINEA

potlatch

moral and religious obligations that were perceived as an irrational economy

-small events that are tied to Pessa

-illegal from 1885-1951; limited access to religious, economic, and identity resources

-PACIFIC NORTHWEST

obligations associated with reciprocity

1) to give

2) to receive

3) to return 

foragers

tend to be nomadic, have a low population density, reliant on geographical mobility, are autonomous (self-governed), and live in a variety of structures that range from permanent to temporary

pastoralists

herd animals that are predominant based on location

-cattle, camels, llamas and alpaca, yaks, reindeer, sheep, goats, and horses

-200-500 million

horticulturalists

mode of cultivation focused on small gardens or fields to support basic family needs

slash and burn 

cutting down vegetation in rainforest and burning it to get the resources and allows for replenish of soil

-lag time of 10-70 years

-used in Mexican, Guatemalan, and Mayan communities 

dry farming

used in desert locations to disperse resources on the ground not just to eat, but also as a symbol of identity

-many social groups use names of food in their names

industrial agriculturists

the application of industrial principles to farming

-includes specialization to produce a single crop, and obtaining of land, labor, seeds, and water as commodities on the open market

sedentism

meaning stationary living

-intense approach used to help ward off predators, prevent theft of plants and animals, nurture and provide additional care, and produce and store surplus of consumable products

ranked societies

basic needs are met, persuasive power, few ranked positions, and kinship emphasis

-examples include Potlatch, New Caledonia, Kwakawka’ wakw, and Hawaii chiefdoms

stratified societies

states in the Service and Sahlins model, larger gaps in access to resources, inequalities persist and can worse intergenerationally (generational wealth) and an increased hierarchy

-examples include class and caste systems 

egalitarian societies 

tend to be acephalus (leaderless), power and access to resources is dispersed, gender, age, and skills are often used to organize groups, and not born into different wealth or power positions

-examples include Mennonites, Hutterites or the Hadza in Tanzania

achieved status

individual choices, desires, efforts, skills that are earned or accomplished 

-examples include Lebron James and Varsity Blues Scandal with Lori Laughlin

ascribed status 

typically born into or hereditary that can be difficult to change (might not be available to socially change) 

-born into a royal family

caste system

moral purity/pollution and depend on past live behaviors/choices not about wealth

-Hindu castes in India (brahmanas, vellalas, vanigars, sippais, sudras, and pariahs)

class system

wealth, income, and resources

-US socioeconomic structures

autonomous/acephalus societies

leaderless and making own decisions as a family

Sahlins and Service Model of Socio-Political Organization

neo evolutionary typology of societies based on their economic and political organization

bands 

highly mobile, temporary settlements that are not easily detected archaeologically (short term access to a lot of land), 25 several hundred members and density of 1 person per square mile, egalitarian, and very high yield relative to labor with gathering, hunting, and fishing

tribes

limited mobility, semi-sedentary/semi nomadic, seasonal, extended rotational, or permanent settlements, 1,000-20,000 members and density of 10 people per square mile, usually egalitarian with a mixture of hierarchical and heterarchical roles, and high yield to labor with part time slash and burn, horticulture mixed with livestock herding and includes pastoralism

chiefdoms

limited mobility-sedentary, mostly permanent settlements, few thousand-30,000 members and density of 15 people per square mile, ranked status with a mixture of hierarchical and heterarchical roles, and moderate to high yield relative to labor with horticulture, agriculture, and pastoralism

states

sedentary mobility, settlements are permanent, condensed, and urbanization occurs, tens of thousands-millions of members with a density of 300 people per square mile, ranked and often stratified status, and high labor needs relative to yield with plow or irrigation agriculture

communitas

participants may gain an intense sense of community which forms a special bond (emphasized during the liminal phase as the barriers of individual statuses/individuals may be broken down or muted during this period)

-demonstrates the communal side present in the creation of self-identity such as graduation, marriage ceremonies, bat and bar mitzvahs, initiations, vision quests, births, and deaths

separation phase

the individual is removed from his or her former status and identity

liminal/transition phase

several learning activities and experiences are emphasized, or this period may include specific trails that bring about a change in status and identity

-details vary cross culturally

-individuals involved have an ambiguous identity/status

-liminality is the in between and highlights betwixt and between

reincorporation

individuals re-enter society; if they successfully achieved their transition, they are publicly marked by elaborate rituals and ceremonies

rites of passage

any life cycle rite that marks a person’s a group’s transition from one social state to another

consumption

the act of using and assigning meaning to a good, service, or relationship

appropriation

the process of taking possession of an object, idea, or relationship and making it one’s own

consumers 

people who rely on goods and services not produced by their own labor 

traditional environmental knowledge

indigenous ecological knowledge and its relationship with resource management strategies