Midterm Review History 101

Pater Familias

was the head of a Roman household and held legal authority over all members, including children, slaves, and sometimes extended family. This term refers to the eldest male in a family, typically the father, who had significant control over the family’s finances, property, and legal decisions. The power of the pater familias was central to Roman social structure, with the authority being passed down through generations. This role could extend to managing inheritances and deciding matters like marriage and divorce for family members. The significance of the pater familias in Roman society illustrates the patriarchal nature of ancient Roman culture, where family and legal authority were closely intertwined, helping historians understand Roman social hierarchies and gender roles.

Cuneiform

one of the earliest systems of writing, developed by the Sumerians around 3200 BCE in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq). The system used wedge-shaped marks pressed into clay tablets, and its characters evolved to represent both syllables and words. Cuneiform began as a method of record-keeping for economic transactions but soon expanded to record laws, literature, and historical events. It is often associated with the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, such as the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians. Cuneiform is significant because it marks a fundamental development in human communication and record-keeping, providing invaluable insights into early civilizations, governance, and culture.

Akhenaten

an Egyptian pharaoh of the 18th dynasty, reigning from around 1353 to 1336 BCE. He is most famous for his religious reforms, in which he introduced the worship of Aten, the sun disk, as the central god, rejecting the traditional polytheistic beliefs that had been dominant in Egypt. Akhenaten moved the capital from Thebes to a new city, Akhetaten (modern-day Amarna), to honor Aten. His monotheistic-like reforms were short-lived, as after his death, traditional beliefs were quickly reinstated. Akhenaten’s reign is significant in the study of ancient Egyptian religion and politics, as it demonstrates the potential for radical shifts in governance and spirituality, even if those shifts were not long-lasting.

The Prophetic Movement

is a series of religious and social reforms in ancient Israel during the period of the monarchy, particularly from the 9th to the 6th centuries BCE. Prophets, such as Elijah, Isaiah, and Jeremiah, played a critical role in calling the Israelites back to ethical monotheism, denouncing idolatry, social injustice, and corruption. The prophets often delivered messages believed to be directly from God, offering both warnings of judgment and promises of restoration. This movement significantly shaped Jewish religious thought and practices, contributing to the development of the Jewish concept of ethical monotheism. The Prophetic Movement is significant for its influence on the moral and ethical framework in both Judaism and Christianity, as well as its profound impact on social justice and religious reform.

Code of Hammurabi

was a Babylonian legal text created under King Hammurabi in approximately 1754 BCE, one of the earliest and most complete written legal codes in history. It consists of 282 laws that cover a wide range of topics, including property rights, family relations, and trade practices. The laws were inscribed on a stone stele and displayed publicly, making them accessible to the people. The Code is particularly known for its principle of lex talionis, or "an eye for an eye," which sought to ensure justice through proportional punishment. The significance of the Code of Hammurabi lies in its early attempt to formalize laws and establish a legal system that applied to all citizens, providing insights into Babylonian society, governance, and justice.

Cyrus the Great

was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire, reigning from 559 to 530 BCE. He is best known for uniting the Persian tribes and expanding his empire to encompass much of the ancient Near East, including the conquest of Babylon in 539 BCE. His leadership is often praised for his respect toward the cultures and religions of the lands he conquered, including allowing the Israelites to return to their homeland after the Babylonian exile. Cyrus is also known for issuing the Cyrus Cylinder, considered one of the first human rights documents, advocating for the protection of religious freedoms and the rights of citizens. His legacy is significant because of his innovative approach to governance, which influenced the development of empires and imperial policy in subsequent history.

Zoroastrianism

one of the world's oldest monotheistic religions, founded by the prophet Zoroaster (or Zarathustra) in ancient Persia, around the 6th century BCE. The religion centers on the worship of Ahura Mazda, the supreme god, and emphasizes the cosmic struggle between good and evil, with the belief that individuals must choose to align themselves with the forces of good. Zoroastrianism introduced concepts such as heaven and hell, judgment after death, and the idea of a final savior, which influenced later Abrahamic religions. It was the dominant religion of the Persian Empire, but its influence waned after the Islamic conquest of Persia. Zoroastrianism is significant because it shaped religious thought in the ancient world and contributed key ideas to later religious traditions, especially Christianity and Islam.

Polis

was a term used in Ancient Greece to describe a city-state, a self-governing entity consisting of a central city and its surrounding territory. Each polis was independent, with its own government, laws, and military, and often engaged in competition and alliances with other city-states. Famous examples of Greek poleis include Athens, Sparta, and Corinth. The concept of the polis was central to Greek identity, as it emphasized civic participation, democracy (in the case of Athens), and the role of citizens in shaping public life. The significance of the polis lies in its contribution to the development of democracy, political theory, and the concept of citizenship, which influenced Western civilization for centuries.

Hoplite

was a heavily armored Greek infantry soldier, typically a citizen-soldier, who fought in a phalanx formation. Hoplites were equipped with a large round shield, a spear, and a sword, and their armor included a helmet, breastplate, and greaves. The hoplite soldier was central to the military forces of many Greek city-states, particularly during the 7th to 4th centuries BCE. The hoplite’s role in warfare reflects the militaristic and civic nature of Greek society, where military service was often tied to citizenship. The hoplite’s significance lies in his representation of the broader social and political structure of Greek city-states, where citizen-soldiers had a direct stake in the defense and governance of their communities.

Pericles

was an influential Athenian statesman and general during the 5th century BCE, often associated with the Golden Age of Athens. He served as the leader of Athens during its height of power, presiding over the construction of the Parthenon and the expansion of the Athenian Empire. Pericles was a proponent of democracy, and under his leadership, Athens became a model of democratic government, with increased participation of citizens in political life. He also promoted cultural development, funding the arts and philosophy. Pericles is significant because his leadership helped shape the course of Athenian history, establishing Athens as a center of political thought, art, and intellectual innovation that continues to influence modern democracy.

Satrapy

was a territorial unit in the ancient Persian Empire, governed by a satrap (provincial governor). The Persian Empire, under leaders like Cyrus the Great and Darius I, divided its vast territories into satrapies to manage its diverse peoples and regions effectively. These regions were often far from the capital, so satraps were given significant autonomy to govern their areas, collect taxes, and raise troops, but they were expected to remain loyal to the central Persian authority. The satrap system allowed the Persian Empire to maintain control over a vast and varied territory, stretching from the Indus Valley to Egypt. The concept of satrapy is significant because it illustrates how the Persian Empire was able to maintain such a large empire through decentralized governance, which influenced later empires in terms of administrative organization and local governance.

Delian League

was an alliance of Greek city-states, founded in 478 BCE, primarily to defend against Persian invasion after the Greek victory in the Persian Wars. Initially, the League was a voluntary association, with member states contributing ships or money to fund a collective defense. The league’s treasury was originally kept on the island of Delos, hence the name. Over time, Athens, as the most powerful member, increasingly dominated the League, turning it into an Athenian empire by using the League's resources to build its own power and influence. The Delian League is significant because it represents the transformation of a collective defense effort into an imperial structure, and it marks the beginning of Athenian imperialism, which would have lasting effects on Greek politics and the eventual Peloponnesian War.

Alexander the Great

was the king of Macedon from 336 BCE to 323 BCE and one of history’s most successful military leaders. He is known for creating one of the largest empires in history, stretching from Greece to Egypt and as far east as India. Alexander’s conquests spread Greek culture throughout the known world, a period known as the Hellenistic Era, which saw a fusion of Greek and local cultures in the regions he conquered. His military innovations and tactical genius, especially during the Battle of Gaugamela, cemented his legacy as one of the greatest military tacticians. Alexander’s significance lies in his creation of an empire that promoted cultural exchange and intellectual growth, which laid the foundation for the spread of Hellenistic culture and the eventual rise of the Roman Empire.

Epicureans

were followers of the ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus (341–270 BCE), who founded a school of philosophy that emphasized the pursuit of happiness through the cultivation of wisdom, self-control, and the reduction of pain. Epicureanism teaches that pleasure, understood as the absence of physical pain and mental distress, is the greatest good, but this pleasure should be sought through modest living, friendship, and the pursuit of knowledge. Epicurus believed that the gods were indifferent to human affairs and that the soul was not immortal. The significance of Epicureanism lies in its challenge to traditional religious views and its emphasis on individual happiness and rational thought, influencing later philosophical schools and the development of secular ethics.

Stoics

was an ancient Greek philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium around 300 BCE, which emphasized virtue, self-control, and rationality as the path to happiness. Stoics believed that individuals should strive to live in harmony with nature and reason, and they taught that emotions like fear, anger, and grief should be controlled. The philosophy became highly influential in Roman times, particularly under emperors like Marcus Aurelius, who practiced Stoicism in their personal lives. Stoicism’s significance lies in its focus on resilience in the face of adversity, ethical self-governance, and the importance of accepting what cannot be changed, principles that resonate in modern discussions on mental health, leadership, and moral philosophy.

Hannibal

was a Carthaginian general during the Second Punic War (218–201 BCE), best known for his audacious crossing of the Alps to invade Italy. He led his army, which included war elephants, to several major victories against the Romans, most notably at the Battle of Cannae, where he inflicted one of the worst defeats in Roman history. Despite his tactical brilliance, Hannibal ultimately could not conquer Rome itself, and after many years of fighting, Carthage was forced to surrender. Hannibal’s significance is in his military genius, which has been studied by generals and military historians for centuries, and his campaigns had a profound impact on the strategic development of warfare and the balance of power in the Mediterranean.

Patricians

were the aristocratic class in ancient Rome, believed to be descendants of the original 100 senators appointed by Romulus, the legendary founder of Rome. They were typically wealthy, land-owning families who held most of the political and religious power in the Roman Republic. Patricians initially had exclusive rights to hold political office, participate in the Senate, and make key decisions in Roman society. Over time, through the efforts of the plebeians, the patricians' monopoly on power was gradually reduced, particularly through reforms like the Lex Hortensia in 287 BCE, which made plebiscites binding on all Romans. The patricians' significance lies in their role in shaping Roman politics, law, and governance, and their struggles with the plebeians highlight the development of Roman democracy and social mobility.

Plebeians

were the common people of ancient Rome, comprising the majority of the population. Unlike the patricians, they were not part of the aristocratic class and had limited political power in the early Roman Republic. Plebeians were often farmers, laborers, and soldiers who were subject to the authority of patrician magistrates and laws. Over time, plebeians fought for political rights and social equality, leading to the creation of the office of the tribune of the plebs, which allowed them to propose legislation and protect their interests. The plebeians’ struggle for political representation and legal equality is significant because it highlights the evolution of Roman governance toward a more inclusive system and the development of political rights.

Twelve Tables

were a set of laws created in the mid-5th century BCE, forming the foundation of Roman law. They were created to resolve conflicts between the patricians and plebeians, who demanded a written code of laws to prevent arbitrary decisions by the ruling elite. The laws were inscribed on twelve bronze tablets and publicly displayed in the Roman Forum. They covered a wide range of topics, including family relations, property rights, and criminal offenses, and they ensured that legal matters were more transparent. The Twelve Tables are significant because they represent the first attempt at codifying laws in Rome, providing the foundation for Roman law and influencing modern legal systems.

Diocletian

was a Roman emperor who reigned from 284 to 305 CE and is known for his significant reforms aimed at stabilizing the Roman Empire during a time of crisis. He established the Tetrarchy, dividing the empire into four regions, each governed by a different emperor, in an attempt to make the administration more efficient. Diocletian also implemented economic reforms, including attempts to curb inflation and stabilize the currency, and he is infamous for his persecution of Christians. His reforms temporarily stabilized the empire, but they also laid the groundwork for future divisions, including the eventual separation of the Eastern and Western Roman Empires. Diocletian’s significance lies in his role in attempting to preserve the Roman Empire through radical reform and in his impact on the empire’s later division.

Pax Romana

"Roman Peace," refers to a period of relative peace and stability across the Roman Empire that lasted from 27 BCE to 180 CE, beginning with the reign of Emperor Augustus. During this time, the empire saw minimal expansion in terms of military conquest, allowing for the growth of trade, culture, and infrastructure within its borders. Augustus's reforms helped centralize imperial power, leading to the stabilization of the economy and the strengthening of Roman law. The Pax Romana marked a high point in Roman civilization, with advancements in art, architecture, and public works, such as roads, aqueducts, and monuments. The significance of the Pax Romana lies in its lasting impact on the Roman Empire's governance and prosperity, and it set the stage for many of the cultural and technological developments that shaped Western civilization.

Constantine

was Roman Emperor from 306 to 337 CE, and he is best known for being the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity and for making Christianity the dominant religion in the empire. In 313 CE, Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, which granted religious tolerance to all religions, effectively ending the persecution of Christians. Constantine also convened the First Council of Nicaea in 325 CE, which sought to address theological disputes within Christianity and establish a unified doctrine. His establishment of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) as a new imperial capital in 330 CE helped shape the Eastern Roman Empire, later known as the Byzantine Empire. Constantine’s significance lies in his role in the Christianization of the Roman Empire, which profoundly shaped the religious and political landscape of Europe for centuries to come.

Augustus

originally named Octavian, was the first Roman emperor, reigning from 27 BCE until his death in 14 CE. As the adopted son of Julius Caesar, he emerged victorious in the civil wars following Caesar’s assassination, leading to the establishment of the Roman Empire. Augustus implemented a wide range of political, military, and social reforms, including the creation of a standing army, the reorganization of provincial administration, and the establishment of a new taxation system. He also promoted public works projects and the arts, which helped solidify the imperial image and foster a sense of Roman identity. Augustus’s significance lies in his foundational role in transitioning Rome from a republic to an empire, bringing stability and prosperity that lasted for centuries, thus defining the Roman imperial system.

Romanitas

refers to the set of cultural values, practices, and ideals that defined the Roman identity throughout the empire. It emphasized respect for Roman traditions, the importance of civic duty, law, and military discipline, and the superiority of Roman governance and culture. The concept of Romanitas was central to the Romanization of conquered peoples, as the empire encouraged assimilation into Roman ways of life through infrastructure, language, and institutions. Over time, Romanitas became a unifying force, helping to maintain cohesion across a vast and diverse empire. The significance of Romanitas lies in its role as both an expression of Roman cultural pride and a means of solidifying control over a wide variety of people, leaving a lasting cultural legacy that would influence the Western world for centuries.

Invention of Writing

(c. 3100 BCE) – Writing was first developed in Mesopotamia (cuneiform) and Egypt (hieroglyphs), marking the beginning of recorded history.

Reforms of Akhenaten

(c. 1353–1336 BCE) – The Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten attempted to introduce monotheism, focusing worship on the sun god Aten.

Rise of Ironworking Technology

(c. 1200 BCE) – The widespread use of iron tools and weapons began, leading to advancements in agriculture and warfare.

Greek Dark Age

(c. 1100–750 BCE) – A period of economic and cultural decline in Greece following the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization.

Destruction of the 1st Temple in Jerusalem

(586 BCE) – The Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II destroyed Solomon's Temple, leading to the Babylonian Exile of the Jewish people.

Reign of Cyrus the Great

(559–530 BCE) – Founder of the Persian Empire, known for his conquests and policies of religious tolerance.

Solon’s Reforms Promote Democracy in Athens

(c. 594 BCE) – The Athenian statesman Solon introduced political and economic reforms that laid the foundation for democracy.

Persian War

• (499–449 BCE) – A series of conflicts between the Greek city-states and the Persian Empire, culminating in Greek victories at Marathon, Salamis, and Plataea.

Twelve Tables

(451–449 BCE) – The first codification of Roman law, forming the basis of Roman legal principles.

Peloponnesian War

(431–404 BCE) – A major conflict between Athens and Sparta that resulted in Spartan victory and the decline of Athenian power.

Founding of Plato’s Academy

(c. 387 BCE) – The Greek philosopher Plato established his school in Athens, shaping Western philosophy.

Rule of Alexander the Great

(336–323 BCE) – The Macedonian king conquered much of the known world, spreading Greek culture and ideas.

Rome’s Conquest of Greece

(146 BCE) – Rome defeated the Greek city-states, incorporating them into its expanding empire.

Punic Wars

(264–146 BCE) – A series of wars between Rome and Carthage, resulting in Rome’s dominance over the western Mediterranean.

Caesar is Appointed Dictator with No Term Limit; Assassinated in Same Year

(44 BCE) – Julius Caesar declared himself dictator for life but was assassinated by senators fearing his power.

Reign of Augustus

• (27 BCE–14 CE) – The first Roman emperor, Augustus established the principate and initiated the Pax Romana

Pax Romana

(27 BCE–180 CE) – A long period of relative peace and stability across the Roman Empire.

Reign of the Five Good Emperors

• (96–180 CE) – A time of strong and stable leadership under Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius.

Reign of Diocletian

(284–305 CE) – Diocletian introduced reforms to stabilize the Roman Empire, including dividing it into East and West.

Council of Nicaea

1. (325 CE) – A gathering of Christian bishops convened by Emperor Constantine to establish unified Christian doctrine, including the Nicene Creed.