AP Psychology: Unit 2

heredity

heredity

the passing on of physical/mental traits from one generation to another

heritability

a mathematical measure that estimates how much variation there is in a population related to genes

epigenetics

focuses on how the environment and an individual’s behavior affect their genes

nervous system

uses neurons to send and deliver fast, short-lived messages to localized areas of the body

endocrine system

uses glands to create hormones; slower messages that target broad areas of the body

homeostasis

the regulation of the body’s internal environment

hypothalamus

part of the brain; controls and directs the pituitary gland; directs different autonomous functions of the body

pituitary gland

part of the brain; produces growth hormones such as oxytocin and vasopressin; controls other glands; master gland of the endocrine system

pineal gland

part of the brain; produces sleep hormones such as melatonin; regulates sleep cycles

thyroid/parathyroid glands

part of the throat; produces thyroid/parathyroid hormones such as calcitonin; regulates metabolism, growth, calcium levels, and the nervous system

adrenal glands

part of the kidneys; regulates salt levels, blood pressure, and oxygen intake; increases heart rate and blood flow

pancreas

part of the stomach; produces hormones such as insulin and glucagon; regulates blood sugar and carbohydrate metabolism

gonads

part of the testes/ovaries; produces sex hormones such as testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone

central nervous system

consists of the brain and spinal cord; sends messages to the body

peripheral nervous system

consists of various nerves; sends messages to the brain and spinal cord

sensory division

the afferent division of the peripheral nervous system; focuses on conducting impulses from sensory stimuli to the central nervous system

motor division

the efferent division of the peripheral nervous system; has signals that come from the central nervous system and go out to the muscles and glands of the body

afferent neurons

sends signals from the body to the brain and spinal cord

efferent neurons

sends signals from the brain and spinal cord to the body

somatic nervous system

consists of voluntary skeletal muscle movements

autonomic nervous system

consists of involuntary bodily functions

sympathetic division

the adrenaline division of the autonomic nervous system

parasympathetic nervous system

the calming division of the autonomic nervous system

glial cells

supplies neurons with nutrition and protects them by providing structural support; most abundant in the nervous system

neuron

the basic functional unit of the nervous system

soma

the cell body of a neuron; contains its nucleus as well as other cellular structures

dendrites

tree-like fibers that branch off from a neuron’s soma; contains receptors to accept incoming signals from other neurons

axon

the tubular structure in a neuron that transmits action potentials

myelin sheath

the fatty substance that coats an a neuron’s axon, therefore insulating it and enhancing its ability to transmit action potentials

terminal buttons

the branching structures at the ends of a neuron’s axons; releases neurotransmitters

synapse

the small gap between the axon of a presynaptic neuron and the dendrites of a postsynaptic neuron

agonist

a drug that mimics a particular neurotransmitter by activating the same receptors, therefore increasing the effectiveness of the neurotransmitter

antagonist

a drug that blocks a particular neurotransmitter from activating its receptors, therefore decreasing the effectiveness of the neurotransmitter

reuptake inhibitor

a drug that prevents a neurotransmitter from being reabsorbed by presynaptic axons, therefore causing greater activation of postsynaptic receptors

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI)

a drug that prevents the reabsorption of serotonin, therefore leading to greater activation of serotonin receptors

action potential

when a neuron reaches a threshold of energy and sends an impulse

3 stages of action potential

depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization

positive ions

located outside the neuron’s cell membrane

negative ions

located inside the neuron’s cell membrane

resting state

when there are more negative ions inside the neuron’s cell membrane than there are outside of it

permeability

the ability for certain ions to cross the neuron’s cell membrane

depolarization

when positively-charged sodium ions rush into a neuron through the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels

repolarization

when sodium ion channels close and potassium ion channels open

hyperpolarization

when some potassium channels remain open and sodium channels reset

absolute refractory period

the period from the opening of the sodium channels to when the sodium channels begin to reset

chemical synapse

when a nerve signal is transmitted via neurotransmitters

electrical synapse

when a nerve signal is transmitted via channel proteins

presynaptic terminal

where the neuron’s axon sends messages

postsynaptic terminal

where the neuron’s axon receives messages

reuptake

when the presynaptic neuron reabsorbs the neurotransmitters that are left in the synaptic cleft

excitatory neurotransmitters

increases the likelihood of a neuron firing action potential; done via depolarization in a postsynaptic neuron

inhibitory neurotransmitters

decreases the likelihood of a neuron firing action potential; leads to hyperpolarization

acetylcholine

the excitatory neurotransmitter responsible for muscle action, learning, and memory

dopamine

the inhibitory neurotransmitter responsible for movement, learning, attention, and emotions

serotonin

the inhibitory neurotransmitter responsible for hunger, sleep, mood, and arousal

endorphins

the inhibitory neurotransmitter responsible for pain control and pain tolerance

epinephrine

the excitatory neurotransmitter responsible for activating the “fight-or-flight” response; greater effect on the heart

norepinephrine

the excitatory neurotransmitter responsible for activating the “fight-or-flight” response; greater effect on blood vessels

glutamate

the excitatory neurotransmitter responsible for long-term memories

gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

the inhibitory neurotransmitter responsible for calming

psychoactive substance

alters perception, consciousness, or mood

depressant

psychoactive substance that reduces neural activity, relaxes muscles, and increases drowsiness

opioid

psychoactive substance that provides pain relief

stimulant

psychoactive substance that increases neural activity, energy, and irritability

hallucinogen

psychoactive substance that causes hallucinations, reduces motivation, and leads to panic

frontal lobe

peach

parietal lobe

blue

temporal lobe

pink

occipital lobe

green

cerebellum

purple

brainstem

yellow

Broca’s Area

left frontal lobe; controls the ability to speak

Broca’s Aphasia

inability to speak

Wernicke’s Area

left temporal lobe; creating and interpreting meaningful speech

Wernicke’s Aphasia

inability to form meaningful speech

medulla oblongata

above spinal cord; controls autonomic/involuntary functions

pons

connects the medulla oblongata to the cerebellum; coordinates movement, sleep, and dreams

cerebellum

backbone of the brain; maintains balance and coordination

brainstem

base of the brain; consists of the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain; damage to it results in immediate death

midbrain

above the base of the brain and surrounded by the forebrain; sends visual and auditory information to the appropriate brain structures

reticular formation

tunnels down the brainstem and arouses the sleep/wake cycle

reticular active formation

encompasses reticular formation; network of nerves that run through the brainstem and out to the thalamus; stimulates higher centers when something important happens

forebrain

top of the brain

cerebrum

parts of the brain that aren’t the brainstem or the cerebellum; processes complex thought

corpus callosum

consists of nerve fibers that connect both hemispheres of the brain; enables communication

frontal lobe

the part of the brain that is located directly behind the forehead; processes complex thought

prefrontal cortex

front left of the frontal lobe; controls foresight, judgement, speech, and processes complex thought

motor cortex

back of the frontal lobe; controls voluntary movement

parietal lobe

sits on top of the head; receives sensory information

somatosensory cortex

touches the motor cortex; registers touch and movement

occipital lobe

located at the back of the head; enables sight

temporal lobe

above the ears; recognizes faces and smells, enables hearing, and regulates balance and memories

angular gyrus

enables reading and the ability to read aloud

auditory cortex

part of the temporal lobe; processes sound

thalamus

collects sensory information and sends it to the forebrain for interpretation

limbic system

group of structures between the brainstem and the cerebral cortex; regulates emotion, learning, memories, and basic drive

hippocampus

part of the brain that creates memories and regulates the ability to learn from them

amygdala

the end of the hippocampus; enables emotional reactions such as fear, anxiety, and aggression

hypothalamus

maintains homeostasis; controls drives such as hunger, thirst, temperature, and the desire for sex; works with the pituitary gland to produce hormones

nucleus accumbens

located near the limbic system; controls drug dependency and is associated with pleasure, rewards, and motivation