Mongolian Empire (13th-14th century)

what was early mongolian life like?

• Transhumance: bringing animals up and down mountains acc to seasons (up in warmer weather, down in colder weather); common practice in mountain places 

• Always needed fresh pasture lands 

• Often ate meat and drank dairy; muscular but short/compact but Europeans were taller with longer arms (hand-to-hand combat) 

Who were the Mongols? 

• Combination of forest and steppe ppl: lived by hunting and herding livestock.

• Living was a constant struggle and only those who were strong survived.

• Standing army with disciplined units and skilled commanders 

mongolian strategy

• Arranged combat: smaller/faster/pivot/more distance for horses; could cover an extraordinary distance in a day. Originally people would march slowly but Mongolians could do surprise attacks. Could shoot while horse moves 

• Women could participate in battles 

• Psychological warfare: were very violent and cruel; rolled caliph into a carpet, threw people 

what was marriage like?

• Tents interrelated thru marriage; conquering men married conquered women, conquered men were selected to marry conqueror's women.

• Founder Chinggis Khan may have had >500 wives... 

Elite women, kha-tu-ns (Mongol queens) 

• Sorghaghtani Beki, mother of Kublai Khan (1st official Mongol ruler of China) made sure her son knew a second language and Confucianism 

• Chabi, Kublai's senior wife offered patronage to Tibetan monks who converted Mongol elite to Tibetan Buddhism 

• Khutulun, his niece wrestled men and claimed their horses as a prize 

women’s roles in mongol society

Dynamics changed as they moved from steppe society to an empire, as well differences in regions 

• Bearing, rearing children 

• Shearing, milking livestock; animal pelts for clothing 

• Organized camp logistics during peace and war 

• Could own property and divorce (they were still bought and sold though!) 

why did the mongols expand?

• Needed grazing lands; conquered fertile belts and rich cities.

• Depending on settled ppl for grain, manufactured goods (incl. Iron for tools, etc.). first expansionist followed caravan routes 

under who did the mongols expand?

• Expansion began in 1206; chose Temüjin (1162-1227) as khan, supreme ruler; took name Chinggis (Genghis) Khan

• Touched all four of Afro-Eurasia's cultural spheres: South to Great Wall of China, west to Afghanistan, Persia; Korea, Pacific, Adriatic Sea. His grandsons later founded dynasties in Persia, China, southern Eurasian steppes 

Mongols in Abbasid Baghdad  

• 13th century: Grandson Mongke Khan wanted world domination. Made his brother Hulagu conquer Iran, Syria, Egypt, Byzantium, Armenia. Made other brother Kublai rule China, Tibet, N India 

• Arrived at Baghdad in 1258 and defeated them easily; had 20x the army  and brutally killed 2 mil ppl. Followed them until streets and mosques were filled with blood. Continued onto Syria, slaughtered Muslims along the way 

Mongols in China 

• N China defeated by cavalry under Chinggis Khan 

• Kublai Khan (1215-1294) seized S China from Song dynasty in 1260s using gunpowder-based weapons they took from China 

• Hangzhou (last Song capital) fell in 1276. Kublai's commander Bayan seized each town despite attempts from the Dowager Empress to buy them off. Empress and Hangzhou were treated well; Venetian traveler Marco Polo and Muslim traveler Ibn Buttuta said neither Europe nor Islam had anything like it 

• Kublai Khan founded Yuan dynasty at Khan-balik (Dadu, now Beijing). Changed both politically and socially but Han majority was still ruling locally while Mongol dynasty collected taxes 

attempts at conquest in asia

• Conquered Yunnan, Burma.

• Annexed portions of SW Asia to China in 1270s.

• Tried to conquer Japan and Korea in 1274 and 1281 via sea but unsuccessful.

• Tried to extend to Javanese in 1293 was another fail and Kublai's last 

why did the mongols reach their limits?

• W: Egyptian Mamluks prevented Mongols from taking Egypt 

• E: S China Sea and Sea of Japan prevented expansion into Java and Japan 

• Better at conquering than governing and yielded more to local admin 

• Fighting among Mongol rulers. Descendants of Genghis Khan split into 4 areas, infighting and black plague cause demise 

• China and Persia: Mongol rule collapsed in 14th century 

• Deadly adversary: the 14th century plague!!! 

how did the mongols change afro-eurasia’s landscape?

• Islam never again had unifying authority of caliphate or powerful center of Baghdad 

• China changed by introduction of Persian, Islamic, Byzantine influence of architecture, art, science, medicine 

• Yuan policy of tolerance from Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Islam into Chinese mix 

• Facilitated flow of fine goods, traders, tech from China to rest of world 

• Encouraged unprecedented Afro-Eurasian interconnectedness; centuries of trade, migration, increasing contacts  

what did the mongol empire mainly do?

Mongols created an empire that controlled east and west; expanded reach thru conquest but also trade and cultural exchange 

how big was the mongol empire?

Largest empire: 20 mil sq mi  

how did the mongols identify?

As warriors. Being warlike becomes part of who they are (like in US); idea of war and conquest becomes part of policy and identity of communities and members 

• Raiding: for grain (long storage, calorically dense that nomads lacked), manufactured goods esp w/iron (for war), luxury goods (why not) 

• Trade and communication: trade of goods over great distance from east to west. Communication must also be well developed with this distance.  

how did the fall of the mongolian empire aid european empires?

When Mongolians fall = the fall of the east and rise of the west 

• It creates the geopolitical space thru which European societies can grow 

  • Turns Ming away to outward looking towards inward to consolidate power from invasion. 

• Who can replace trade network 

• Europeans could build upon existing frameworks 

long term effects: europe

• Eastern Europe: split between E and W Europe's development bc of Mongolian rule. Eventually western countries become superpowers (England, France) 

• Northern Europe: becomes known for fabric, textiles 

• Southern Europe: purveyors of long distance trade 

• Get navigational tools (compass, astrolabe) and gunpowder 

• Fall of Mongolian empire leads to Europe's come up 

long term effects: china

• Mongolian invasions profoundly arrested economic development.

• China doesn't gain such dynamic economic forces since Mongolians. In the west the idea of capitalism takes hold but not rly in the east

long term effects: venice

• Given special treaties and protections for trade. Lucrative commercial and territorial privileges.

• Conduits of trade within larger Mongolian empire. Includes gold, medical manuscripts, books on astronomy, skins + furs, honey, and slaves – Venice gets from across Europe to introduce to Mongolian empire 

• Mongols extract wealth, promoted trade, supported infrastructure 

changes: orginal egalitarian rule

• Did not have a strong centralized govt; better conquerors than rulers.

• Let local rulers maintain their way of ruling. Comes out as a more egalitarian social relationships based on collective collaboration.

• Tang dynasty and feudalism based on strong hierarchies; this new egalitarian approach is a sharp contrast 

changes: constant engagement among sedentary societies

• Originally did not have much contact because of this and have a small worldview in terms of knowledge and ideas.

• Mongolians start connecting these ppl; share, borrow, imitating, rejection between groups to improve tradition and technology.

• Want to now become part of trade – production of surplus goods becomes a benefit 

changes: to centralized govt + need for greater taxation

• Wealthy ppl have money, paintings, jewelery, etc.; they have security to protect their goods.

• As these communities have more stuff w/value, they need more and more protection thru military, growing beaureaucracy, growing central power.

• Need money thru taxes