Psychology: Key Concepts in Attribution, Social Influence, and Group Behavior

Attributions

Causal explanations for behavior

Dispositional Attributions

Explaining behavior based on internal traits or character

Situational Attributions

Explaining behavior based on external environmental factors

Fundamental Attribution Error

Overestimating the influence of personality and underestimating the situation when judging others

Actor/Observer Bias

Attributing your own actions to external causes while attributing others' actions to internal causes

Self-Serving Bias

Taking credit for good outcomes and blaming others or the situation for bad ones

Explanatory Style (Optimistic)

Attributing positive events to oneself and negative events to external factors

Explanatory Style (Pessimistic)

Attributing negative events to internal, stable, and global factors

Locus of Control (Internal)

Believing you control your own fate

Locus of Control (External)

Believing outside forces or luck determine your fate

Social Comparison (Upward)

Comparing yourself to someone you perceive as better off

Social Comparison (Downward)

Comparing yourself to someone you perceive as worse off

Relative Deprivation

The perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Expectations about others that lead them to behave in ways that confirm those expectations

Mere Exposure Effect

Repeated exposure to something increases our liking of it

Halo Effect

When an overall positive impression of a person influences how we feel about their specific traits

False Consensus Effect

Overestimating how many other people agree with your own opinions or preferences

Stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people

Prejudice

Negative, unjustifiable attitudes toward a specific group

Discrimination

Negative actions taken against a group

Implicit Attitudes

Unconscious evaluations or feelings toward a group or object

Ethnocentrism

Believing one's own culture is superior to others

Just-World Phenomenon

Believing people get what they deserve and that the world is fair

Out-group Homogeneity Bias

Seeing members of other groups as "all the same" while seeing your own group as diverse

In-group Bias

A preference for members of one's own group

Belief Perseverance

Clinging to initial beliefs even after they have been discredited

Confirmation Bias

Seeking out information that supports existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence

Cognitive Dissonance

Tension felt when actions and thoughts do not match; often leads to attitude change to reduce tension

Cognitive Load

The amount of mental effort being used in working memory

Social Norms

Rules and expectations for "normal" behavior in a society

Conformity

Changing behavior to fit in with a group

Normative Social Influence

Conforming in order to be liked or accepted

Informational Social Influence

Conforming because we believe the group has the right information

Obedience

Following orders from an authority figure

Foot-in-the-Door

Getting a "yes" on a small request to make a later large request more likely

Door-in-the-Face

Asking for a huge request that is rejected to make a subsequent smaller request more likely

Central Route to Persuasion

Using facts, logic, and deep processing to persuade

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

Using emotional appeal and surface-level traits to persuade

Elaboration Likelihood Model

Describes how likely people are to focus on the core message versus surface cues

Individualism

Prioritizing personal goals over group goals

Collectivism

Prioritizing group goals and harmony over individual desires

Multiculturalism

Recognizing and respecting cultural diversity

Group Polarization

Group attitudes becoming more extreme after discussion

Groupthink

Prioritizing group harmony over realistic alternatives when making decisions

Social Loafing

Putting in less effort when working in a group than when working alone

Deindividuation

Losing self-restraint and individual identity when anonymous in a group

Social Facilitation

Performing better on easy tasks when an audience is present

Bystander Effect

People are less likely to help if others are present

Diffusion of Responsibility

The belief that "someone else will help" when in a group

Altruism

Unselfish giving to others

Prosocial Behavior

Any action intended to help others

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that override differences among people and require cooperation

Social Traps

Situations where individuals' pursuit of self-interest leads to collective ruin

Drive-Reduction Theory

Motivation to reduce physiological needs (like hunger) to maintain homeostasis

Arousal Theory

Motivation to maintain an optimal level of alertness

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Performance increases with arousal up to a point, after which it decreases

Incentive Theory

Being pulled toward behaviors by external rewards

Intrinsic Motivation

Doing something for internal enjoyment

Extrinsic Motivation

Doing something for a reward or to avoid punishment

Affect

The experience of feeling or emotion

Facial-Feedback Hypothesis

Facial expressions can influence emotional experience

Display Rules

Cultural norms about how and when to express emotions

Psychodynamic Theory (Freud)

Personality theory focusing on unconscious processes and ego defense mechanisms like repression or projection

Humanistic Theory

Personality theory focusing on the self-actualizing tendency and unconditional regard

Reciprocal Determinism

A 3-way loop between self-perception, behavior, and environment (Social-Cognitive theory)

Self-Concept

Your overall mental image or perception of yourself

Self-Efficacy

Belief in your ability to succeed at a specific task

Self-Esteem

Overall sense of personal worth or value

Big Five / OCEAN

The five major personality traits: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism

Openness to Experience

Big Five trait — high = creative and curious; low = prefers routine and tradition

Conscientiousness

Big Five trait — high = organized and goal-directed; low = messy and prone to procrastinating

Extraversion

Big Five trait — high = energized by socializing; low = prefers solitude (introverted)

Agreeableness

Big Five trait — high = empathetic and cooperative; low = competitive or manipulative

Neuroticism

Big Five trait — high = emotionally unstable and anxious; low = calm and resilient