RESEARCH METHODS

Unit 1 AOS 3, SAC 3

What is the aim?

An outline of the investigation that is one concise sentence.

What is a hypothesis?

A testable prediction, of two or more variables.

Prediction between events or characteristics.

How is a hypothesis reviewed?

Either rejected or supported, never proved!

What is a controlled variable experiment

An experimental investigation to test the relationship between an independent variable and a dependant varinalem whilst controlling all other variables.

What is a variable?

Something that can change (‘vary’) in amount or type and is measurable

What is a controlled variable?

Variables other than the I.V which are kept constant to ensure the D.V changes solely from the I.V.

independent variable (IV) is

The variable that has it’s quantities manipulated in order to effect D.V

dependent variable (DV) is

The variable the researcher measures

Operationalising variables

Refers to specifying exactly how the variables will be manipulated or measured in a particular controlled experiment.

Lists the types of research methods

Experimental Methods
Correlational Methods
Descriptive Methods: observational studies, self reports, case studies

Experimental: laboratory experiments, field experiments
Non-experimental: case studies, observational studies, questionnaires, interviews, correlational studies, simulation studies

What is a correlational study?

Measures the relationship between variables with no manipulation from the researcher which includes controlling the setting.

List the types of descriptive methods

Observational studies
Self reports
Case studies

List the types of experimental methods

Laboratory experiments, Field experiments

List the types of non-experimental research methods

case studies, observational studies, questionaires, interviews, correlational studies, simulation studies.

What is a self-report?

A participant’s answers to questions presented by the researcher

What is an oberservational study?

Involves collection of data by carefully watching and recording behaviour as it occurs without any intervention or manipulation of the behaviour being observed.

What is a case study.

Is an intensive, in-depth investigation of some behaviour, activity, event or problem of interest in a single individual, group, organisation or situation. In psychology, the ‘case’ that is the subject of ‘study’ is usually a person.

What is cross-sectional method

A type of observational research method used to analyse data from a population at a specific point of time.
Variables are not manipulated the study,

What is a longitudinal study?

A research method that involves repeated observations of the same individuals over a long period of time

What is the population?

Refers to the entire group of research interest from which a sample is drawn.

What is the point of the population?

Researcher can aim to generalise (apply) results of investigation to the population.

What is the sample?

The subset or part of the population that is selected for research purposes

What is sampling

The process of selecting a part of the population.

What is random sampling?

Sampling technique that ensure every member of the population of research interest has equal chance of being selected as part of the sample.

What is stratified sampling?

Process of selecting a sample form the population comprised of variou subgroups so that each subgroup is represented,

what is convenience sampling?

Involves selecting a sample of individuals who are readily available.

Advantages of convenience sampling

Advantages: most time-effective and can be cost-effective

Disadvantages: The most likely to create an unrepresentative sample, therefore making it harder for researchers to generalise results to the population.

Stratified sampling advantages/disadvantage

Advantages:
Most likely to produce a representative sample.
Disadvantage:
Can be time consuming & expensive
be demanding for researcher to select most appropriate sample

Random sampling advantages/disadvantages

Advantages:

Sample generated can be more representative than convenience sampling.

Reduces experimenter bias in selecting participants.

Can make a fairly representative sample if the sample is large.

Disadvantage:
May be time consuming - to ensure every member of population has equal chance of being selected
May not create representative sample when sample is small.

What is an extraneous variable?

A variable other than the IV that may cause a change in the DV and therefore may effect results

What is a confounding variable?

A variable other than the IV that has had an effect on the DV which cannot be separated from that of the IV.

Beneficence

Trying to maximise benefits and minimise risks and harms realted to particular position or course of action

Integrity

Commitment for aiming to find knowledge and understanding, honest reporting, available to scrutiny that contributes to public knowledge and understanding

Justice

Moral obligation to ensure that there is fair consideration of competing claims, No unfair burden on a certain group, fair distribution and access to the benefits of an action

Non-maleficence

Involves avoiding the causations of harm

Respect

Involve consideration of the extent to which living things have an intrinsic value and instrumental value, giving due regard to the rights and welfare of the subjects and to ensure they are empowered where possible and protected as necessary.

List the ethical concepts

Beneficence

Respect
Integrity

Non-maleficence
Justice

BRINJ

Ethical guidelines

(Use of) Deception in research

Informed consent procedures

Voluntary participation

Debriefing

Withdrawal rights

Confidentiality

Confidentiality

All of a participant’s personal information and results are kept from being identifiable

Debriefing

Ensures that at the end of the experiment, the participant leaves understanding the experimental aim, results and conclusions.

Informed consent procedures

Before agreeing to participate in a study participant should understand the nature and purpose of the experiment, including potential risks (both physical and psychological)

Use of deception in research

Deception can only be used if participants knowing the true purpose of the experiment may affect their behaviour whilst participating in the study, and the subsequent validity of the experiment.

Voluntary participiation

Ensures that no coercion or pressure is put on the participant to partake in an experiment, and they freely choose to be involved.

Withdrawal rights

Involves a participant being able to discontinue their involvement in an experiment at any time during or after the conclusion of an experiment, without penalty.

What is reliability

Refers to the extent to which a measure produces results that are consistent dependable and stable

What is validity

Refers to the extent to which a measure accurately measure what is intended to be measured. Means that the results represent the population to which the sample was drawn.

Internal validity

Relates to how well the study was conducted and if the study investigates what it was set out to/claim to have investigated.

External validity

Relates to the applicability of the results, to see if results can be applied beyond the study’s sample, to the wider population.

generalisation

A decision about how widely the results of an investigation can be applied, particularly to other members of the population from which the sample was drawn.

what is included in a good hypothesis

Refers to variables that can be observed & measured
States existence of relationship
Include population
One sentence

a good aim

describes purpose of investigation
clear and concise
one sentence
relates to research problem

Cognitive development

Cognitive development involves changes in an individual’s mental abilities, such as reasoning, problem-solving, decision-making, perception, learning, memory and use of language

typical development

Typical development is development that usually (‘typically’) occurs and is appropriate and expected

atypical development

Development that is not typical — it differs markedly in some way from what is expected

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development

His theory describes the impact of certain social and cultural experiences on our social, emotional and personality development at various stages of the entire lifespan

Why did Erikson call it the psychosocial model

Because of the combined effects of psychological processes which happen within an individual (psycho) and their life experiences, particularly interactions with other people (social)

Psychological crisis in Erikson’s theory.

Psychological crisis is a personal conflict an individual faces in adjusting to society.

a crisis is not a catastrophe but a turning point in life.

Stage 1

Stage 1: Trust versus Mistrust (0 to 18 months)

Crisis of stage 1

Trust versus mistrust.
Trust refers to views and expecttion infants develop about their environment.
When care = inadequate, irregular or even rejecting, mistrust can develop.

Stage 2:

Autonomy versus Shame and doubt (18 months to 3 year

Key accomplishment of stage 2

Autonomy:
ability to do things independently and feelings of self-confidence and competence which accompanies this.

if a child is too dependent during ages 18 months-3 years was may happen?

Shame and doubt about capabilities

Stage 3

Stage 3: Initiative versus Guilt (3–5 years)

third stage involves conflict

conflict between initiative at one extreme and guilt at the other.

What is initiative in

Stage 3: nvolves being able to plan, think for oneself and carry out various kinds of activites with puepose.

What is guilt

Stage 3: about going too far, about overstepping boundaries, about asking too many inappropriate question, about becoming the ‘wrong kind of person’.

Stage 4:

Stage 4: Industry versus Inferiority (5–12 years)

Stage 4 invovles conflict

between industry at one extreme and inferiority at the other.

What may affect a child’s stage 4 crisis?

The child’s school experience also affects their industry–inferiority
 balance.

Stage 5 title

Stage 5: Identity versus Role confusion (12–18 years)

stage 5 involves

resolving the conflict between identity at one extreme and role confusion at the other.

Identity

Stage 5: identity refers to the overall image individuals have of themselves.

Role confusion

a sense of not knowing who they are, where they belong, to whom they belong or where they are headed inlife.

Secure attachment

shows a balance between dependence and exploration.

infant uses caregiver as home to explore the world, some distress when caregiver departs.

Insecure avoidant attachment

Infant does not seek closeness or contact with caregiver, treats them like stranger.

rarely cries when carer leaves.

May be result of neglectful or abusive carers.

Insecure resistant attachment

Infant appears anxious even when caregiver is near, very upset when separated from caregiver.
cries to be picked up then squirms to be let free.
may result from carers who are not very responsive to infant’s needs.

Disorganised attachment

form of insecure attachment where infant show inconsistent, odd, contradictory behaviors.

Example of Disorganised attachment

a child reunited with a carer might seek close contact but do so by moving slowly toward the caregiver, or turning head in another direction to avoid eye contact.

Disorganised attachment might present in adulthood as

Find it difficult to have close relationships, to open up to others or to seek out help or other forms of support.

location of frontal lobe

Largest four lobes, uper forawrd half of each cerbral hemispher

Function of frontal lobe

sophisticated mental abilities
voluntary movement control

speech production

Function of primary motor cortex.