Social Psychology Exam 2 Key Terms

Attitude

An evaluation of a person, object, or idea that can be positive, negative, or mixed and influences thought and behavior.

Classical conditioning

Learning that happens when a neutral stimulus is paired with one that naturally causes a response until the neutral one triggers the same response on its own.

Operant conditioning

Learning in which behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on rewards or punishments received for them.

Explicit attitudes

Attitudes that people can consciously report and are aware of holding.

Implicit attitudes

Attitudes that exist outside of conscious awareness and can influence behavior automatically.

Central route to persuasion

Persuasion based on careful, logical thinking about the arguments in a message.

Peripheral route to persuasion

Persuasion based on superficial cues like attractiveness or status rather than the quality of arguments.

Attitude inoculation

Building resistance to persuasion by exposing people to small, weak counterarguments so they can better defend their beliefs later.

Sleeper effect

The delayed impact of a persuasive message that occurs after people forget its source but remember its content.

Emotion

A brief, specific psychological and physiological response to an event that helps people respond to challenges and opportunities.

Mood

A more diffuse and longer-lasting feeling state that is not directed toward a specific stimulus.

Interoceptive signals

Internal bodily sensations, such as heartbeat or muscle tension, that contribute to emotional experience.

Building blocks of emotion

The main components of emotions—cognitive appraisal, physiological arousal, action tendency, communicative signal, and feeling.

Challenge construal

Viewing a difficult situation as manageable and within one's abilities, leading to confidence, approach motivation, and a healthier physiological response

Threat construal

Viewing a situation as overwhelming or beyond one's control, leading to anxiety, avoidance, and a more harmful physiological stress response.

Valence

The positive or negative quality of an emotional experience.

Arousal

The level of physiological activation or energy associated with an emotion.

Universality debate

The discussion over whether emotions are biologically universal or shaped mainly by culture.

Cultural construction of emotion

The idea that cultures shape how emotions are experienced, expressed, and understood.

Reappraisal

Changing how one thinks about a situation to alter its emotional impact.

Suppression

Inhibiting the outward signs or expression of emotion.

Situation selection

Choosing situations that will likely lead to desired emotional outcomes or avoiding those that will not.

Stereotypes

Generalizations about a group of people that assign identical characteristics to all members regardless of individual differences.

Prejudice

A hostile or negative attitude toward a group and its members, based solely on group membership.

Discrimination

Unjustified negative or harmful behavior directed toward people because of their group membership.

IAT (Implicit Association Test)

A measure of the strength of automatic associations between concepts and evaluations, used to detect implicit biases.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

When expectations about a person or group lead to behavior that causes those expectations to come true.

Realistic conflict theory

The idea that prejudice arises from competition between groups for limited resources.

Contact hypothesis

The theory that direct contact between groups can reduce prejudice under the right conditions (equal status, cooperation, and shared goals).

Jigsaw classroom

A cooperative learning method where students of different backgrounds work together on tasks, reducing prejudice and increasing empathy.

Out-group homogeneity

The perception that members of an out-group are all alike, while in-group members are diverse.

Minimal groups paradigm

A research method showing that even arbitrary group distinctions can produce in-group favoritism.

Warmth stereotypes

Judgments of how friendly, trustworthy, and well-intentioned a group is perceived to be.

Competence stereotypes

Judgments of how capable, skilled, and intelligent a group is perceived to be.

In-group bias

The tendency to favor and treat members of one's own group more positively than those of other groups.

Aggression

Intentional behavior aimed at causing physical or psychological harm to another person.

Culture of honor

A social norm where individuals, particularly men, respond aggressively to threats or insults to maintain reputation and respect.

Relational aggression

Behavior intended to harm someone through manipulation or damage to relationships, such as gossiping or social exclusion.

Frustration-aggression theory

The theory that frustration—being blocked from a goal—increases the likelihood of an aggressive response.

Dehumanization

Viewing others as less than human, which reduces empathy and makes aggressive behavior easier to justify.

Punishment

A consequence meant to decrease a behavior; when aggressive or inconsistent, it can increase aggression rather than reduce it.

Catharsis

The mistaken belief that releasing anger through aggressive actions reduces future aggression; research shows it actually increases it.

Utilitarian thinking

Reasoning that focuses on outcomes and justifies harm if it produces a greater good, sometimes enabling violence.

Hostile aggression

Aggression driven by anger and the goal of inflicting pain or injury.

Instrumental aggression

Aggression used as a means to achieve another goal, not out of anger.

Ritualized aggression

Displays of aggression meant to establish dominance or resolve conflicts without actual harm.

Hostile attribution

The tendency to interpret ambiguous actions of others as hostile or threatening.

Integrity-based violations

Wrongdoing that violates moral or ethical principles, often seen as character-based.

Competence-based violations

Failures that reflect a lack of skill or ability rather than bad intent.

Collective violence

Aggression carried out by groups, such as wars or riots, often justified by shared beliefs or moral reasoning.

Mere exposure effect

The tendency to like something or someone more after repeated exposure or familiarity.

Similarity (homophily)

The tendency to be attracted to and form relationships with people who are similar in attitudes, values, or background.

Reciprocal liking

Liking someone more when we believe they like us in return.

Triangular theory of love

Sternberg's model proposing that love has three components—intimacy, passion, and commitment—that combine to form different types of love.

Intimacy

Emotional closeness and connection that fosters trust and affection.

Passion

Physical attraction and romantic desire that create excitement and arousal.

Commitment

The decision to maintain love and stay in a long-term relationship.

Attachment styles

Patterns of relationship behavior shaped by early caregiving experiences that influence adult relationships.

Secure attachment

Comfortable with closeness and independence; trusts others easily.

Avoidant attachment

Uncomfortable with dependence and prefers emotional distance.

Anxious attachment

Fears rejection and seeks constant closeness or reassurance.

Disorganized attachment

Mix of anxiety and avoidance, often marked by confusion or fear in relationships.

Communal relationships

Relationships where partners give based on need and concern for each other without expecting direct repayment.

Exchange relationships

Relationships focused on keeping track of costs and benefits, expecting equality and reciprocation.

Matching hypothesis

The idea that people are more likely to form relationships with others who are similar in physical attractiveness and social status.

Ideal partner traits

Characteristics people believe they want in a partner, such as kindness, intelligence, or humor, though real attraction may differ.

Extroversion bias

The perception that extroverted individuals are more socially desirable or successful in relationships.

Self-domestication hypothesis

The theory that humans evolved to be more cooperative and less aggressive, allowing strong social bonds and trust.

Role of positive expectations in relationship satisfaction

The idea that believing the best about a partner or relationship leads to higher satisfaction and stability.

Loneliness

The painful feeling of social isolation or lack of meaningful connections.

Third places

Informal public spaces, such as cafes or parks, where social interactions and friendships naturally form.

Residential mobility

How often people move residences; high mobility can lead to weaker long-term connections but greater openness to new relationships.

Generalized trust

The belief that most people can be trusted, which promotes cooperation and strong social ties.

Political polarization

The deepening divide in political attitudes that reduces empathy, cooperation, and social connection across groups.