Climate Change Impacts & Policy – ENVR 7004

PHENOLOGY

Phenology is the study of the timing of natural events in relation to climate and seasons.

🧠 In simpler words:
It’s about when things happen in nature — like when plants flower, birds migrate, or animals breed — and how these timings are changing as the climate warms.

• Flowers bloom earlier in spring because warmer temperatures arrive sooner.

• Birds migrate earlier or arrive sooner to breeding grounds.

• Insects hatch earlier, which can mess up food chains (like birds arriving too late to eat them).

Why it matters:
When the timing of these natural events gets out of sync (called phenological mismatch), it affects entire ecosystems:

• Plants may bloom before pollinators (like bees) are active.

• Birds may hatch chicks when food is no longer available.

💡 In short:
Phenology = nature’s calendar, and climate change is re-writing the schedule.

INTERVENTION

Intervention means any action humans take to limit, manage, or reverse the effects of climate change.

🧠 Think: “We step in and do something about it.”

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Types of intervention:
1⃣ Mitigation – Prevent the problem (reduce greenhouse gases).
2⃣ Adaptation – Adjust to the problem (deal with the effects).

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Examples:

• Building seawalls to prevent flooding → adaptation

• Switching to renewable energy → mitigation

• Planting trees to absorb CO₂ → mitigation

• Developing drought-resistant crops → adaptation

💡 In short:
Intervention = taking action — whether by reducing emissions or protecting against the impacts.

ADAPTATION

Definition:
Adaptation means adjusting our systems and behaviors to cope with climate change effects that are already happening or unavoidable.

🧠 Think of it like: “We can’t stop all of it, so how do we live with it?”

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Examples of adaptation:

• Agriculture: Planting heat-tolerant or drought-resistant crops.

• Cities: Building flood barriers or improving drainage for heavy rains.

• Ecosystems: Protecting migration corridors so species can move north as temperatures rise.

• Health: Creating early warning systems for heatwaves.

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Goal:
To reduce harm and increase resilience — making people, economies, and ecosystems more prepared for change.

💡 In short:
Adaptation = learning to live with climate change safely.

🌍 4⃣ MITIGATION

Mitigation means reducing or preventing greenhouse gas emissions to slow down or stop climate change itself.

🧠 Think: “Stop the problem at the source.”

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Examples of mitigation:

• Switching to renewable energy (solar, wind, hydro).

• Improving energy efficiency (LEDs, electric vehicles).

• Reforestation (trees absorb CO₂).

• Carbon capture technologies.

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Goal:
To limit global warming by cutting the amount of heat-trapping gases we release.

💡 In short:
Mitigation = attack the cause, not the symptom.

Difference between Adaptation vs Mitigation

Adaptation	Mitigation
Deals with the effects	Deals with the causes
Adjusts to what’s already happening	Prevents future warming
Examples: seawalls, drought-resistant crops	Examples: renewable energy, reforestation
Focus: survival	Focus: prevention

💰 5⃣ CARBON TAX

A carbon tax puts a direct price on carbon emissions — the more you pollute, the more you pay.

🧠 Goal:
To make polluting expensive so businesses and people switch to cleaner energy.

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How it works:

• Government sets a price per ton of CO₂ (e.g., $80/ton).

• Companies that burn fossil fuels must pay that fee.

• The cost encourages switching to renewable energy or efficiency.

• Governments can use the revenue to fund green programs or return it to citizens as rebates (like in Canada).

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Example:
Canada’s federal carbon tax started in 2019 — it applies to gasoline, natural gas, and heating fuels.
People get rebates (Climate Action Incentive) to offset higher costs.

💡 In short:
Carbon tax = polluters pay per unit of carbon emitted.

CAP-AND-TRADE

Cap-and-trade (also called emissions trading) is a market system that puts a limit (cap) on total emissions — and allows companies to buy and sell emission permits.

🧠 Think: “You get a limited number of pollution tickets — and if you use fewer, you can sell them.”

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How it works:
1⃣ Government sets a cap on total emissions for all industries.
2⃣ Companies get or buy permits that allow a certain amount of emissions.
3⃣ If a company emits less → it can sell its unused permits.
If it emits more → it must buy extra permits from others.

💰 This creates an economic incentive to pollute less, since saving emissions can make you money. Example:
The EU Emissions Trading System (ETS) and California’s cap-and-trade program both use this model.

💡 In short:
Cap = total pollution limit
Trade = companies buying/selling emission rights

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⚖ Carbon Tax vs Cap-and-Trade

Feature	Carbon Tax	Cap-and-Trade
Type	Fixed price per ton of CO₂	Fixed total amount of emissions
Certainty	Certainty about cost	Certainty about total emissions
Flexibility	Companies can reduce or pay	Companies can trade permits
Example	Canada, Sweden	California, EU
Goal	Encourage cleaner behavior	Achieve an emissions limit efficiently

💡 In short:
Carbon tax = “pay per ton”
Cap-and-trade = “limited pollution passes”

CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS ON ECOSYSTEMS & FOOD

• Warmer temperatures make growing seasons longer in some regions.

• BUT: Too much heat, drought, or unpredictable rain can damage crops and lower yields.

Crop choice and growth

• Farmers are switching crops northward (e.g., corn growing in parts of Canada that used to be too cold).

• Drought-tolerant crops and irrigation are becoming essential.

• More CO₂ can help plants grow faster — but only if there’s enough water and nutrients.

Species distribution

• Animals and plants are moving northward or to higher elevations as temperatures rise.

• Cold-adapted species (like Arctic foxes or polar bears) are losing habitat.

Phenology changes

• Earlier flowering, migration, and breeding.

• Mismatch between food supply and life cycles (e.g., chicks hatching when insects are gone).

INTERNATIONAL CLIMATE CONFERENCES (UNFCCC COPs)

• 1997 Kyoto Protocol – first binding emission targets for developed countries.

• 2015 Paris Agreement – all countries set emission reduction goals to keep warming below 1.5–2°C.

• Recent COPs (e.g., COP28 in Dubai) focus on:

  • Phasing out fossil fuels.

  • Funding for developing countries (loss and damage fund).

  • Tracking progress (“global stocktake”).

💡 COP = Conference of the Parties under the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change).

ANADA’S CURRENT APPROACH

Canada’s strategy includes:
1⃣ Carbon pricing system (carbon tax + cap-and-trade in some provinces).
2⃣ Net-zero emissions by 2050 target.
3⃣ Clean electricity plan — phasing out coal.
4⃣ Investments in public transit, EVs, and clean tech.
5⃣ Nature-based solutions like tree planting and wetland restoration.

💡 In short:
Canada uses both taxes and incentives to cut emissions while keeping the economy competitive.

✅ Quick Summary Sheet for Review

Term	Key Idea	Simple Example

Phenology

Timing of natural events

Flowers blooming earlier

Intervention

Human action to limit climate change

Seawalls or renewables

Adaptation

Adjusting to impacts

Drought-resistant crops

Mitigation

Reducing GHGs

Switching to solar energy

Carbon tax

Pay per ton of CO₂

Canada’s federal tax

Cap-and-trade

Limited permits that can be traded

EU, California progra