Unit 1--Wars for Empire and the New Republic (APUSH 2025-26)

"so help me God"

words which Washington added to the end of the Oath of Office

"Mr President"

Honorific title established by Washington as the proper way to address the US President

Cabinet

A group of advisers to the president; Washington established it with its four original positions

Washington's cabinet positions

Secretary of State--foreign affairs (Jefferson); Secretary of Treasury (Hamilton)--financial affairs; Secretary of War--military affairs (later changed to Sec of Defense); Attorney General--legal affairs/government's lawyer

Washington's cabinet rivalry

Sec of State Jefferson vs Sec of Treasury Hamilton

Judiciary Act of 1789

A law passed by the first Congress to establish the federal court system.

Hamilton's Economic Plan

designed to strengthen the national economy, build US credit, and assert the authority of the federal government; included three parts: funding of the national and state debts (assumption); creation of a national bank; taxes and tariffs to provide revenue

Ways that Hamilton got his Economic Plan adopted

Assumption--made a deal w/ Jefferson over the location of the federal capital; National bank--used the wording of the "necessary and proper clause" (elastic clause); taxes and tariffs--when rebels rose to oppose the federal tax on whiskey, Hamilton pushed Washington to respond w/ force

Neutrality Proclamation of 1793

one of Washington's precedents, it proclaimed America's formal neutrality in the escalating conflict between England and France, a statement that enraged pro-French Jeffersonians.

Citizen Edmund Genet

Representative of the French Republic; Despite the Neutrality proclamation, he encouraged Americans to fight for France as privateers against Britain; Washington demanded that he stop recruiting and requested his recall to France

Whiskey Rebellion

uprising of western Pennsylvania farmers opposed to the federal tax on whiskey; Washington responded by leading a force of about 13,000 US troops to put down the rebellion; showed that Washington intended to uphold federal law and authority

two-term tradition

after two terms in office, Washington decided to step down as president thereby setting a precedent for the passage of power to others and conveying the message that the Presidency was not like a European monarchy

Farewell Address (1796)

another of Washington's precedents, he gave an address at the end of his presidency, warning against sectionalism, the rise of political parties and entangling alliances w/ other countries

Jay's Treaty (1794)

signed in the hopes of settling the growing conflicts between the U.S. and Britain; established promises by the British to stop seizing US ships and to evacuate frontier forts on US soil; cheered by Federalists it was nonetheless criticized for its lack of firm achievements

Pinckney's Treaty (1795)

signed b/w the US and Spain; granted the US free navigation of the Mississippi River and the "right of deposit" at New Orleans; cheered by Democratic-Republicans because it enabled western farmers to use the river for commerce

Beliefs of the Federalist Party

rule by wealthy, strong federal gov, economy based on manufacturing; pro-British; loose constructionism; pro-national bank; pro-assumption; feared mob rule and too much democracy

Beliefs of the Democratic Republican Party

rule by virtuous common people, strong state governments, economy based on agriculture; pro-French; strict constructionism, anti-bank; opposed to assumption; feared tyranny

first "real" election

historians' nickname for the election of 1796; because Washington had been elected unanimously, Adams' election in 1796 was the first in which the outcome was in doubt

"quasi war"

undeclared naval war b/w the US and France; France was upset about Jay's Treaty and the refusal of the US to adhere to the Treaty of Alliance; France began seizing US ships on the sea; resolved by Adams in the Convention of 1800

Convention of 1800

resolution to the "quasi war" w/ France; US was released from its obligations in the alliance w/ France; in return, France was released from having to pay damages against US shipping

"father of the US navy"

John Adams' nickname b/c he requested and received increased funding for upgrading the US Navy in light of the undeclared "quasi" war w/ France

XYZ Affair

name for the scandal after French diplomats demanded bribes from the US before they would negotiate an end to the "quasi war"; Adams changed their names to avoid escalating the scandal into full war though many American were still very angry w/ France over this insult

Alien Act

This law gave the president the power to imprison or send aliens out of the country and increased the amount of time before immigrants could gain the right to vote

Sedition Act

made it a crime to write, print, utter, or publish criticism of the president or government; highly controversial b/c it violated freedom of speech and press; led to the VA and KY Resolutions

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions

state resolutions passed in 1798 declaring the Alien and Sedition Acts unconstitutional and expressing the "compact theory" of government under the Constitution

"compact theory"

idea that the Constitution represents an agreement among sovereign states to form a common government; since the states volunteered to join, they could volunteer to leave; expressed after the Sedition Act in the VA and KY Resolutions

"Revolution of 1800"

Jefferson's nickname for his election; he intended to reverse the growth of federal power during the first two presidencies; bloodless exchange of power from one party to the other which proved that the republican form of government could last in the US

Jefferson's actions which achieved Democratic Republican goals:

--named only Republicans to his cabinet;--reduced the size of the military;--eliminated federal jobs;--repealed whiskey tax

Jefferson's actions which continued some Federalist goals:

--maintained neutrality in foreign wars; --continued to pay off the federal debt;--kept the national bank; --used implied power of the President to sign Louisiana Purchase;--used federal funding to send the Lewis and Clark expedition

Louisiana Purchase

1803 purchase of the Louisiana territory from France. Made by Jefferson, this doubled the size of the US for $15 million after Napoleon offered the whole territory instead of just New Orleans; created a dilemma for Jefferson

Jefferson's dilemma with Louisiana Purchase

accept the offer--open himself to criticism by Federalists as a hypocrite who was using federal power; decline the offer--miss out on the chance to create an agrarian, American empire

agrarianism (republicanism)

philosophy that agriculture and owning land should be the backbone of the economy; favored by Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans

Barbary Wars

series of conflicts b/w the US and the pirate states of North Africa; these pirates would seize US ships for ransom or demand tribute; Jefferson refused and eventually defeated the Kingdom of Tripoli but had to build up the US navy to accomplish this task

Embargo Act of 1807

Act passed by congress in 1807 prohibiting ALL American trade; intended to force Britain and France to respect US trading rights; ruined the US economy especially that of New England; repealed after one year, it made Jefferson very unpopular, renamed the "dambargo" or the "ograbme" by Federalist critics

Griswold-Lyon Fight

outbreak of violence on the floor of the House of Representatives between a Federalist and a Democratic-Republican; reveals the heated nature and extent of partisan politics during the Adams administration

Causes of the French and Indian War

1. Colonial rivalry b/w Great Britain and France. 2. France and Great Britain both interested in fur trade w/ Natives 3. Disputed land claims in Ohio River Valley (British colonists moving in to farm)

Results of the French and Indian War

France removed from North America; Britain gains all French lands in N.A.; Britain takes on huge debt; Washington gains experience in battle; Natives lose leverage; colonists gain self-confidence

William Pitt

British Prime Minister who turned the tide of the French and Indian War in Britain's favor; focused Britain's military and financial powers on the war in North America

Ohio River Valley

location of the start of the French and Indian War

Albany Plan of Union

proposal by Benjamin Franklin to unite the American colonies for mutual defense against the French and their Indian allies; the "Join, or Die" snake cartoon was created to promote this idea

Treaty of Paris, 1763

treaty which ended the French and Indian War; Britain received all French lands EAST of the Mississippi; Spain received all French lands WEST of the Mississippi

Pontiac's Rebellion (1763)

Native uprising in the Ohio Valley that killed 2,000 American settlers; after using military force and diseased blankets to pacify the tribes, the British government realized it needed to institute new policies to keep American settlers and Natives apart in North America

Proclamation of 1763

British proclamation which drew a line along the Appalachian Mountains beyond which the American colonists were forbidden to settle in order to separate colonists and Natives and maintain peace; resented and ignored by the colonists

Mercantilism

British policy of restricting and regulating colonial trade; after the French and Indian War, Britain began to enforce these acts again (end of salutary neglect) and crack down on smuggling

Writs of Assistance

general search warrants used by British officials to search for smuggled goods during the Revolutionary period; resented by the colonists because they violated property and privacy rights

Vice-Admiralty Courts

special courts set up in Canada and England to try colonial smugglers; resented b/c they violated colonists' rights to speedy trial by their peers

Virginia Resolves (1765)

VA's response to the 1765 Stamp Act, Patrick Henry persuaded the colony's assembly to adopt several strongly worded resolutions that denied Parliament's right to tax the colonies; these resolutions persuaded many other colonial legislatures to adopt similar positions

Stamp Act

British tax which required merchants to place a stamp on all paper products as proof that the tax was paid; resented by the colonists as the first "direct" tax placed on them by Parliament; protested and boycotted by the colonists

Stamp Act Congress

gathering of colonial representatives to discuss grievances against the Stamp Act; sent a petition to Parliament asking for repeal of the Stamp Act

Sons of Liberty

organized mob of radical colonists who used intimidation to enforce boycotts and prevent tax collectors from working; sometimes used tarring and feathering and other violent acts in protest

Quartering Act

British act which stationed troops in colonial cities and required the colonies to pay for their housing

Townshend Acts

British tax on tea, lead, paint, paper, and glass; led to more boycotts and more protests

"virtual representation"

British governmental theory that members of Parliament spoke for all British subjects, including Americans, even if they did not vote for its members directly; this was one counter-argument to the cry of "no taxation, without representation"

Committees of Correspondence (1772)

Organization founded by Samuel Adams consisting of a system of communication between patriot leaders in New England and throughout the colonies

Massachusetts Circular Letter

letter written by Samuel Adams which expressed colonial outrage over Townshend Acts and encouraged more boycotts; circulated and read throughout the colonies

Boston Massacre

violent event in Boston which left 5 colonists dead after they harassed British troops guarding the city customs house; labeled a "massacre" by colonists to spread outrage against the British

HMS Gaspee

British customs ship which ran aground off Rhode Island and was boarded and burned by colonists in a violent act of protest against British policies

Tea Act

British act which gave an exemption to the Dutch East India Company from paying colonial taxes on tea; led to the Boston Tea Party

Boston Tea Party

violent act of protest when Sons of Liberty members boarded ships loaded w/ tea in Boston harbor and dumped them overboard; led to the Coercive Acts

Coercive Acts

called the "Intolerable Acts" by the colonists, these acts punished Boston and Massachusetts for the loss of property in the Boston Tea Party; united the colonies in sympathy for Massachusetts and led to the First Continental Congress

Suffolk Resolves (1774)

list of responses to the Coercive Acts drawn up by delegates from Suffolk county, Massachusetts, and approved by the First Continental Congress; included actions were non-enforcement of the Coercive Acts, agreement to a full boycott of British goods, and training and arming of local militias.

Continental Congress

gathering of the American colonies to discuss common action against British policies; sent Olive Branch Petition to the King, organized boycott of British goods, and urged colonies to begin training minutemen for defense

minutemen

colonial militia who began training in case British troops used force to crack down on the rebellion

John Locke

Enlightenment writer who expressed idea of natural rights (life, liberty, and property); argued that governments exist only to protect these rights and should be overthrown if they do not; argued that a social contract exists between the government and the governed

Montesquieu

Enlightenment writer who believed that government power should be separated into branches in order to protect against its abuse; inspired the separation of powers principle in the US Constitution

Common Sense

pamphlet by Thomas Paine which argued, in plain and simple terms, the logic and reasoning behind why America should be independent from Britain; influenced many who were undecided about supporting the Revolution

Declaration of Independence

formal expression of the reasons why the American colonies were breaking away from Britain; written primarily by Thomas Jefferson

four parts and functions of the Declaration of Independence

Preamble--explanation of why the colonies were writing; Dec. of Rights--expression of the propeList of Grievances--list of complaints against the King and Parliamentr relationship b/w government and people; Resolution--expresses formal notice that the colonies were independent from Britain

Lexington and Concord

engagement b/w British troops looking for colonial weapons and minutemen militia in the towns outside Boston; first shots of the Revolutionary War

Baron von Steuben

Prussian soldier who joined Washington's staff at Valley Forge and trained the Continental Army; he brought discipline and sanitation to the troops and improved their ability to fight

Articles of Confederation

first government of the United States; created a loose union of cooperation b/w the states; replace by the Constitution b/c of its many flaws and weak central government

flaws in the Articles of Confederation

--central govt was too weak;--each state had one vote regardless of size;--amendment required unanimous vote of all states;--no power to tax;--no power to regulate trade;--Congress could only raise an army by requesting troops from the states--no executive branch w/ power to enforce laws

Problems which led to the Articles being replaced by the Constitution

--Congress could not pay its war debts; --states were bickering and taxing each other's imports; --Shays' Rebellion broke out and Congress could not respond;

Land Ordinance of 1785

law passed by the Articles Congress which created a method to survey and then sell western lands; created townships of 6 square miles; led to land companies buying best land and selling it later for profit

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

law passed by the Articles Congress which created a system of admitting new states to the union out of the western territories; territory and self-government at 5,000 people; statehood and constitution at 60,000 people; no slavery was allowed and freedom of religion had to be guaranteed

Salutary Neglect

English policy of relaxing the enforcement of trade regulations on its colonies; these periods allowed the American colonies to grow their economic and political identity and when this policy ended, the colonies grew resentful of the British government

British Southern Strategy

British strategy to shift their war effort during the Revolution to the Southern colonies in order to benefit from greater support amongst Loyalists and foment rebellion within the slave population

Battle of Saratoga (1777)

Decisive colonial victory in upstate New York; considered to be the turning point of the American Revolution; significance: led France to openly support the colonies with a military alliance in addition to the supplies and money already being sent.

Battle of Yorktown (1781)

Last major battle of the American Revolution during which Gen. Washington and a French fleet coordinated and surrounded Gen. Charles Cornwallis on the York peninsula in VA; significance: led British government to seek a treaty to end the war

Crossing the Delaware & Battles of Trenton/Princeton

Surprise attack on the British by the Washington and the Continental Army on Christmas 1776; victory at Trenton and later Princeton showed the ability of Washington to score important victories against the British army

Valley Forge (1777-1778)

Encampment where George Washington's poorly equipped army spent a wretched, freezing winter. Hundreds of men died and more than a thousand deserted; Washington relied on Baron Von Steuben, a Prussian military advisor, to discipline and train the army which emerged in the Spring a much more capable fighting force

Shay's Rebellion (1786)

Armed uprising of western Massachusetts debtors seeking lower taxes and an end to property foreclosures. Though quickly put down, the insurrection inspired fears of "mob rule" among leading Revolutionaries and directly led to calls for a convention to address problems with the Articles of Confederation

Annapolis Convention (1786)

precursor to the Constitutional Convention; a small group of delegates from a few states gathered to discuss ways to get around deficiencies in the Articles of Confederation; little was accomplished except for the delegates to recommend that a further convention be held to discuss changes to the form of the federal government

Paxton Boys/Paxton Revolt

1763 attack by western Pennsylvania settlers on innocent Native American villages motivated by the belief that the tribal villagers were aiding Pontiac's rebellion an resentment that frontier needs were not being addressed by the colonial legislature; colonial leaders negotiated a truce when the rebels marched on Philadelphia

Daughters of Liberty

colonial women's organization which supported the boycott of British goods. They urged Americans to wear homemade fabrics ("homespun") and produce other goods that were previously available only from Britain. They believed that way, the American colonies would become economically independent.

"Critical Period"

historian's name for the period in US History between 1781 and 1789 during which the government, under the Articles of Confederation, struggled to address several dire economic and foreign policy issues; it ended with the ratification of the US Constitution

Battle of New Orleans

General Andrew Jackson won this in 1815. The War of 1812 had officially ended two weeks earlier, but word had not yet reached the United States.

Market Revolution

major changes brought on by the factory system which produced large amounts of cheap goods and transportation developments which increased the size of markets in the US economy

"Era of Good Feelings"

term for the political harmony, national expansion, economic growth, and obvious nationalism following the War of 1812 and corresponding to Monroe's Presidency; came to an end by the mid 1820's due to the slavery question, Panic of 1819, and rise of new political parties

cotton gin

machine patented by Eli Whitney in 1793; it removed seeds from cotton fibers; despite being a labor saving device, it expanded the institution of slavery and tied the South's economy to "King Cotton"

War Hawks

Led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun; argued that war with Britain was the only way to defend American honor, gain Canada and Florida, and eliminate Native American-British presence on the frontier.

impressment

practice of kidnapping US sailors by the British; one of the main causes of the War of 1812

Treaty of Ghent

Ended the War of 1812, established "status quo antebellum" meaning neither Britain nor the US received any territory from the other

Frances Scott Key

wrote the Star-Spangled Banner after witnessing the bombardment of Fort McHenry

Monroe Doctrine

bold foreign policy announcement in 1823 devised by John Q. Adams; declared that: 1) the western hemisphere was closed to colonization (non-colonization) 2) the US would not interfere in the affairs of Europe and Europe was expected to respect the same policy in the Americas (non-interference)

Marbury v. Madison

first major case of the Marshall Court; Marshall ruled that the law under which Marbury had brought suit was unconstitutional; established the principle of judicial review and greatly enhanced the power of the court

American System

Henry Clay proposed this three-part agenda as a way to advance the nation's economy and make it independent of foreign reliance; it consisted of rechartering the Bank of the US (achieved), passing a protective tariff (achieved), and funding various internal improvements (only partially achieved and controversial)

Lowell-Waltham system

system that recruited young farm women to work in the textile mills that incorporated the entire textile production process under one roof; female workers were housed in company dormitories near the mills

Hartford Convention (1814)

meeting of Federalists to discuss their opposition to the War of 1812; proposed a series of amendments to the Constitution; seen as very unpatriotic in the context of US victories late in the war; led to the demise of the Federalist party

Tecumseh

Shawnee military leader; "They have pushed us from the seas to the lakes, we can go no further." Advocated fighting Americans to stop westward progression and renew British alliances; he and his brother, the Prophet, were defeated by William Henry Harrison at the Battle of Tippecanoe