AP World History

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Land Base Empires

large political units that controlled vast territories, often characterized by diverse populations, extensive bureaucracies, and agricultural economies. Examples include the Ottoman, Persian, and Ming, Muguals, Safavid, Russia.

Ming Dynasty

A major Chinese dynasty known for its trade expansion, cultural achievements, and construction of the Great Wall. Came after the mongols rule in China put an emphasis on being Chinese brought back the civil service exam and confucianism policies. It ruled from 1368 to 1644 and was marked by strong centralized imperial authority. There capital was in Bejing, completed the great wall as protection from Mongols.

Devshrime System

Ottomans military hiring system they took young Christian boys and trained them an Istanbul this system combated harem politics

Jenissaries

High position in the Ottoman military, conflict between the Jenissaries and the sultans as Jenissaries became obsolete and would not modernize.

Ghazi Ideal

Model for warriors life that came from Temerlane it blended nomadic culture with the rule of a holy fighter.

Temerlane

A mongol Turk ruler who moved from Uzbekistan to modern day Iran he murdered 100,000 Hindus. His rise was allowed Gunpowder empires, his grandson made the Mughasl empire some individuals saw him as a murder while others saw him as someone who increased the arts and learning

Zamindars

Local tax collectors in the Mughal Empire who were given land in exchange for loyalty and revenue.

Ottomans Empire

Mehmed second conquered Constantinople through gunpowder in the 1451 renaming it Istanbul. This was a big deal due the last area of the byzantine empire”Roman empire” was in Constantinople, it allowed the Ottomans to expand; They also had the black sea which gave them trading opportunities. Mehmed strengthened his navy and attacked Veince Italy, he did not conquered them but forced them to pay tax’s

Ottoman Economy

Ottoman gained wealth through conquest and forcing them to pay tribute. They acted like the middleman because they where right in the middle silk road they taxed everything silk,spices, every,slaves

Suleiman first

ruler after Mehmed he ruled when the Ottoman empire was thriving he attacked Hungary and Vienna in Austria he captured the Island Of Rhode now part of Greece which was a Christian area worrying the Europeans. He remade the Ottoman law which called him lawgiver.

Manchus

The people who created the Qing Dynasty not ethnically Chinese and where the last Chinese Dynasty. Traded and interacted with Europeans especially the Portuguese.

Mughal Empire

Started by the son of Termerlane son Berbur but grew with Akbar; This was a land based empire Muslim Sunni gunpowder empire ruled in India.

Akbar

Mughal second leader was known to be a great leader due to being religious tolerant, taking away the Jiza, allowing individuals to speak to him about concerns in his government.

Safavids Empire

Ismail took over Iran and was named ruler of the Safavids which where land based gunpowder empire Shia Muslim. Had conflict with the Mughals and the Ottomans over religion and shared borders.

Songhai

An Islamic West African empire that conquered Mali and controlled trade from the into the 16th century; eventually defeated by the Moroccans who were broke after fighting with Portugal

Devshirme

The system by which boys from Christian communities were taken by the Ottoman state to serve as Janissaries (elite military units)

Janissaries

Elite Ottoman guard recruited from the Christian population through the devshirme system, that often converted to Islam; utilized gunpowder weapons such as muskets

Divine Right

The idea that monarchs are God's representatives on earth and are therefore answerable only to God.

Absolute monarchy

system of government in which the head of state is a hereditary position and the king or queen has almost complete power

Versailles

Palace constructed by Louis XIV outside of Paris to glorify his rule and subdue the nobility; late 17th-early 18th century

Zamindars

Mughal empire's taxation system where decentralized lords collected tribute/taxes for the emperor

Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal is a magnificent mausoleum located in Agra, India, commissioned by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal, who died during childbirth. Completed in 1643, it is celebrated for its stunning white marble facade, intricate inlays of precious stones, and harmonious design that exemplifies a blend of Indian, Persian, and Islamic architectural styles.

Protestant Reformation

Religious movement begun by German monk Martin Luther who began to question the practices of the Catholic Church beginning in 1519; split the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the 'protesters' forming several new Christian denominations: Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anglican Churches (among many others)

95 Theses

Arguments written by Martin Luther against the Catholic church; posted on October 31, 1517; ultimately led to Martin Luther's excommunication and the origins of the Protestant Reformation

Martin Luther

A German monk who became one of the most famous critics of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1517, he wrote 95 theses, or statements of belief attacking the church practices; began the Protestant Reformation

Counter/Catholic Reformation

The reaction of the Roman Catholic Church to the Protestant Reformation; reaffirming the veneration of saints and the authority of the Pope (to which Protestants objected), ended sale of indulgences and simony, created Jesuits missionaries, but also the began the Inquisition

Jesuits

A teaching and missionary order created to resist the spread of Protestantism (a result of the Counter Reformation); sent to China, Japan, and the New World to gain Catholic converts

indulgence

A pardon given by the Roman Catholic Church in return for repentance for sins and payment; "a way to reduce the amount of punishment one has to undergo for sins"

Simony

the buying and selling of church offices, seen as a corrupt practice, this practice was outlawed by the Catholic Church during the Counter Reformation

Inquisition

Roman Catholic tribunal for investigating and prosecuting charges of heresy (belief or opinion contrary to Christian beliefs); viewed as a reaction to the Protestant Reformation; used primarily in Spain and in Spanish territories in the New World

Thirty Years War

a war that resulted from the Protestant Reformation (1618-1648 CE); occurred in the Holy Roman Empire between German Protestants and their allies (Sweden, Denmark, France) and the emperor and his ally, Spain who supported Roman Catholicism; ended in 1648 after great destruction with Treaty of Westphalia

John Calvin

French theologian who developed the Christian theology known as Calvinism; attracted Protestant followers with his teachings; believed in predestination; 1509-1564

Sikhism

the doctrines of a monotheistic religion founded in northern India in the 16th century by Guru Nanak and combining elements of Hinduism and Islam; a result of the presence of the Mughal Empire in India

Shogunate

Japanese system of government under a shogun (military warlord), who exercised actual power while the Japanese emperor was reduced to a figurehead (someone with no political power)

Bedouins

Established in the Arabian Peninsular, there culture was nomadic, tribal, polytheistic. They had religious rocks the most important was a large black one is Mecca the qu’ab

Muhammad

Born in Mecca Muhammad started receiving vision for Allah. He criticized the polytheistic culture and limited have many wifes. His ideas began to spread causing conflict leading to him leaving Mecca and going to Medina where he created the first Muslim community. He came back and conquered Mecca.

Islam

Islam is a major world religion that falls under the broader Abrahamic faiths, which also include Judaism and Christianity. It is distinguished by its belief in one God, referred to as Allah in Arabic. Unlike some other religious traditions that emphasize a particular human prophet or leader as central to their faith, adherents of Islam believe that the teachings and revelations of Muhammad, regarded as the final prophet, directly convey Allah's will. This religion has expanded rapidly, in part through military conquests that led to the establishment of Islamic states and empires, which facilitated the spread of Islamic principles, culture, and governance over diverse population

Five pillars

Core moderate acts:

Profession of Faith

Prayer- five daily prayers

Alms-giving-donate a fixed amount

Fasting

Pilgrimage- travel to Mecca

Shariah

Outlines the behavioral requirements for a Muslim daily.

Umayyad Caliphate

Definition: The Umayyad Caliphate was the first major Islamic caliphate established after the death of Muhammad, ruling from 661 to 750 CE. It expanded Islam into North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula (modern-day Spain and Portugal), and parts of Asia, significantly influencing the territories it governed. Under the leadership of Umayyad caliphs such as Muawiya I and Abd al-Rahman, the caliphate grew to encompass a vast empire that included diverse cultures and populations. The Umayyads are often criticized for prioritizing political power and wealth over religious principles, leading to perceptions of corruption and moral decline within their rule. They established their capital in Damascus, a strategic location that allowed for easier administration of their extensive territories; however, discontent arose from issues like unequal treatment of non-Arab Muslims and lavish lifestyles of the elite. The Umayyad dynasty ultimately fell in 750 CE when they were overthrown by the Abbasids, who criticized their governance and sought to restore a religious framework to Islamic leadership. One of the most significant cultural legacies of the Umayyad Caliphate was the founding of the city of Cordoba in Spain, which became a major center of learning and culture during the Islamic Golden Age, characterized by advancements in arts, sciences, and architecture.

Baghdad

Center for learning, created techniques to make thicker paper they had a collections of book and where in the golden age of learning.Translated Greek works into Arabic preserving it.

Abbasid Caliphate

The Abbasid Caliphate moved its capital to Iraq and aimed for equitable treatment of Muslims and non-Muslims. It emphasized learning, particularly at the 'House of Wisdom' in Baghdad, and made significant advancements in fields such as algebra, geometry, and medicine. Ultimately, it was conquered by the Mongols, leading to its decline.

Mamluks

Turkic group that had been formerly military slaves took control of Egypt and established empires in north Africa

Withe the lead of Muhammad Ali who had more control the the Ottomans he supported the Ottomans in capturing different regions. They failed in gaining control of Venice due to Venice having support from Britain and French army’s.

Battle Of Tours

conflict where Frankish leader Charles Martel defeated an invading Islamic army in France. This victory is famous for stopping the Umayyad Caliphate's advance into Europe and preserving the region's Christian influence.

Cordoba

was the capital city of the Islamic forces (the Umayyad Caliphate)

Red Sea

The Red Sea is a long, narrow strip of water between Africa and Asia that serves as one of the world's most vital shipping lanes. It connects the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea via the Suez Canal, allowing about 10–12% of all global trade to bypass the long journey around Africa.

Sufism

Sufism is the mystical branch of Islam that focuses on the internal, spiritual search for God rather than just following outward laws

Great dying

The great dying refers to when the Europeans traveled to isolated native Americans groups such as the Aztecs and the Incas spreading smallpox & killing up to 95% of the population on this religious groups this was demographic change.

The great dying support Spain in capturing Spain

Small pox/ Influenza

Smallpox and Influenza supported Spain in capturing the territory from the native Americans due to most of the population dying from these diseases.

Colonies revolution

The 13 colonies where separated from Britain due to distance they experience salutary neglect leading them to create their own culture and identity apart from Britain. Britain need money because of the 7 year war

French revolution

The French Revolution (1789–1799) began when France faced massive debt from wars and unfair taxation under King Louis XVI. In 1789, the Third Estate (commoners) broke from the Estates-General and formed the National Assembly, demanding political power. After the storming of the Bastille, the Assembly issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, influenced by Enlightenment ideas like those of John Locke, which declared that men were equal under the law and that sovereignty came from the people. By 1792–1793, the revolution became more radical: the monarchy was abolished, Louis XVI was executed, and during the Reign of Terror (1793–1794), Maximilien Robespierre led a campaign of executions to defend the revolution. After this violence, a weaker government called the Directory ruled from 1795 to 1799 but struggled with corruption and war. In 1799, the military leader Napoleon Bonaparte seized power in a coup, promising stability. He later declared himself emperor in 1804, preserving some revolutionary reforms like equality before the law while ending the democratic experiment.

Enlightenment Ideas

Thomas Hobbes

• Book: Leviathan (1651)

• Believed humans are naturally selfish and violent.

• Said people need a strong absolute ruler to keep order.

• Social contract = people give up rights for protection.

John Locke

• Book: Two Treatises of Government

• Humans have natural rights: life, liberty, property.

• Government’s job is to protect rights.

• If government fails → people can overthrow it.

Voltaire

• Supported freedom of speech & religion.

• Criticized the Catholic Church.

• Believed in religious tolerance.

Montesquieu

• Book: Spirit of the Laws

• Separation of powers (3 branches).

• Checks and balances to prevent tyranny.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

• Book: The Social Contract

• Government should follow the general will (will of the people).

• Popular sovereignty (power comes from the people).

Baghdad

• Founded: 762 CE by the Abbasid Caliphate

• Location: On the Tigris River, Iraq

• Significance:

  • Capital of the Abbasid Caliphate → political & cultural center

  • Famous for the House of Wisdom, where scholars studied math, astronomy, medicine, philosophy

  • Key hub for trade between Asia, Africa, and Europe

• Legacy:

  • Center of Islamic Golden Age

  • Helped spread knowledge, science, and culture across Eurasia

💡 MAIN IDEAS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT

• Natural Rights

• Social Contract

• Popular Sovereignty

• Separation of Powers

• Religious Tolerance

• Reason over tradition

• Equality before the law

🌍 WHAT THESE IDEAS CAUSED

These ideas challenged:

• Absolute monarchies

• Divine right of kings

• Social hierarchies

They inspired revolutions where people demanded:

• Rights

• Representation

• Constitutional governments

🇺🇸 American Revolution (1775–1783)

Cause: Colonists upset about taxes without representation.
Influence: Locke’s natural rights.
Document: Declaration of Independence (1776).
Result: Democracy with Constitution & separation of powers.

🇭🇹 Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)

Leader: Toussaint Louverture
Cause: Enslaved people demanded rights promised in French Revolution.
Result: First successful slave revolt → Haiti becomes independent in 1804.
Big Deal: Proved Enlightenment ideas applied to ALL people.

Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan, born as Temujin in 1162, was the founder of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death. He united the Mongolian tribes and utilized innovative military strategies, emphasizing mobility and the use of horse-mounted archers. His conquests extended across Asia and into Eastern Europe, known for his political and military genius, as well as his brutal conquests that often led to mass destruction. He implemented a meritocratic system, promoting individuals based on their abilities rather than their lineage, and established a relay system of communication called the Yam. After his death in 1227, his legacy continued through his descendants, who expanded the empire further and facilitated trade and cultural exchanges across the Silk Road.

Mansa Musa

Mali king; richest person ever; famous pilgrimage to Mecca → spread Islam and wealth of West Africa.

Grand canal

The Grand canal was important for the Tang and Sui Dynasty because it connected northern and southern china, which supported the government in moving foods and drinks easily, and strengthened trade and control.

Important Infrastructure

Great wall of china

• Built to support china in protecting themselves of invasions of different groups

• 

Taj Mahal

• Made by the ruler of the Mugal Empire for his wife who died in child birth

Angkor wat

• Started off as a Hindu temple but later had buddhish influence

Great Zimbabwe

• massive stone city showing the wealth and political power of southern Africa.

• 

Forbidden City

Large complex area where Chinese emperors lived in represented power and social hierarchy

Chinese practice

• Kowtow

Practice of bowing to the Chinese leader to show respect because china believed they where superior.

• Foot Binding

Practice of wrapping your foot as child to make them slower mostly in elite Chinese men would do it to show off there wife did not have to work.

Song Dynasty

The song Dynasty was the golden age of China the Tang dynasty created the compass and Gunpowder and the song would create printing book system with wooden blocks. Confucianism would keep order in the song dynasty and fillia piety would keep respect and social hierarchy. China had the civil service exam where wealthy men would learn Chinese ideas to be apart of the bureaucracy. Champa rice was introduced to the song dynasty in grew twice a year and was drought resistant more food more people. Also china sold luxury goods such as tea silk and porcelain to Europeans.

Sui Dynasty

Reunified China after 200 years they where know for creating the golden canal which provided rice for urban areas southern to northern additionally there people overthrew them

Tang dynasty

Made innovations in Gunpowder printing block and clocks failed due to the An Lushan Rebellion

Song Dynasty

Golden age of China maintained power through Confucianism policies and the civil service exam which was a meritocracy-mostly wealthy men due to individuals not being able to work. China women had limited rights due filial piety which was knowing your places. Chinese women also went through foot binding mostly elite men to prove they where wealthy enough that there wife’s did not have to work. Additionally Buddhism traveled to China through the silk road creation neo-Buddhism. The song dynasty also sold luxury good such as silk porcelain & tea it increased through flying money, paper money.

Islam

Bedouins where kin based society that followed polytheistic religion and practice polygamy which was having many wives. Muhammad was a merchant who received visions for Allah he criticized them for they polytheistic religion he got kicked out of Mecca and went to Madina where he created the first Muslim community umma they came back and conquered Mecca. The vision of Muhammad was put in a book called the Quran, The caliphs after Muhammad where his brother father inlaw someone who expanded Islam and his father inlaw. Ummads expanded Islam into Europe Africa and India regions. then Abbasid took over there capital where bagdad house of knowledge they preserved Greek text and increased knowledge in trigonometry and more.The Abbasid hire Turks to help them in the military but they took control and made the Seljuk turk the Abbasids would be taken over by the mongols.

Africa: From Families to Empires

• Bantu Migration: Long ago, Bantu people moved across Africa, spreading iron tools, farming, and their language.

• Kin-based Societies: Before big kings, Africans lived in small groups where families (kin) made the rules. There was no big government.

• How Islam arrived: It didn't come by war. In West Africa, it arrived via camels across the desert (Gold-Salt trade). In East Africa, it arrived via boats across the ocean (Indian Ocean trade).

Muhammad Ali (early 19th century):

• He was an Ottoman-appointed governor of Egypt (1805).

• He expanded control into Arabian territories (like the Hejaz and parts of Arabia) to secure Ottoman influence.

• Military campaigns: He attempted to push into areas like Venice, but European navies helped Venice resist him.

• He modernized Egypt’s army, government, and economy, essentially making Egypt semi-independent while still technically under the Ottomans.

• Took advantage of the Napoleonic Wars and led government cotton production. He made state monopolies by making land to expensive for peasant so he could control and took advantage of Napoleonic.

Innovation Industrialization

Steam Engine

• Created James Watt allowed for factors to be built away from fresh water ports

Water loom

• Richard Arkwright faster textile

Interchangeable Parts

• Easier repair workers more replaceable