Culture Exam 2

2/13 to 3/25

More personal attributes, such as their traits, attitudes, and achievements

What kind of self-descriptions would more individualistic cultures (United States) give in the Twenty-Statements Test?

Attributes that reflect more of their social identity, roles, and memberships

What kind of self-descriptions would more collectivistic cultures (Kenya) give in the Twenty-Statements Test?

Defined by internal attributes, distinct from others, fewer distinctions between in-group and out-group

What are the characteristics of Independent Self-Construals?

Defined by relationships and groups, self-connected to others, stronger distinctions between in-group and out-group

What are the characteristics of Interdependent Self-Constuals?

Individualistic Cultures (United States, Great Britian, Australia)

In what type of cultures are independent self-construals common?

Collectivistic (China, Japan, Korea)

In what type of cultures are interdependent self-construals common?

Residential Mobility

A situation in which somebody’s self-construals can change, in which a person moves to another place

Socioeconomic Status

A situation in which somebody’s self-construals can change, which is the status of a person’s income and living

Religion, Geography, Urbanization, Individualism/Collectivism

What aspects of culture influence Gender Equality? (William & Best, 1990)

Plow Cultivation

A theory that placed the creation of a certain agricultural tool that shows a noticeable connection with not as many women being in the workforce (Boserup 1970 + Alesina et al., 2011)

Cognitive Dissoance

Psychological discomfort due to experiencing conflicting beliefs or when their actions contradict their values

Cognitive Dissonance breaks our needing of feeling Self-Consistent in our beliefs and actions

How does Cognitive Dissonance relate to Self-Consistency?

Free-Choice Paradigm

A type of quiz given in which a set of options that are ranked by the participants, then are ranked again after more information is given about the objects

Certain choices that people can make in terms of the list can cause cognitive dissonance

How is the Free-Choice Paradigm related to Cognitive Dissonance?

Their given choice usually moved up after the 2nd ranking

How did people in the United States react when it came to the Free-Choice Paradigm?

Their given choice stayed the same after the 2nd ranking

How did people in Japan react when it came to the Free-Choice Paradigm?

Entity Theory of the Self

A theory that states that aspects of the self are resistant to change, and view our traits as fixed and innate

Incremental Theory of Self

A theory that states that aspects of the self are fluid, and respond to the efforts that we make, and that we can change easily

Feeling that you are not intelligent after doing bad on a test rather than reflect on your study habits

What is an example of the Entity Theory of the Self?

Getting a good grade on a test because you studied hard for it

What is an example of the Incremental Theory of the Self?

Accept that this difficulty is unchangeable and part of yourself

How would somebody that believes in the Entity Theory of the Self respond to difficulties?

Work hard to better yourself and do better on the next attempt

How would somebody that believes in the Incremental Theory of the Self respond to difficulties?

More individualistic cultures like the have the Entity mindset, and collectivist cultures have the Incremental mindset

How do the Entity/Incremental Theories of the Self differ across cultures?

Self-Enhancement

The motivation to view yourself positively

Individualistic Cultures

What kind of cultures is Self-Enhancement common?

Its progress to becoming more individualistic

What evidence shows that the United States has the highest scores of Self-Enhancement in the entire world?

Better-Than-Average Effect

A type of self-serving bias in which a person automatically thinks they are better than at least the average person in an activity/game

Self-Serving Attribution

A bias in which a person gives credit to internal factors for successes and blames external factors for failures

Downward Social Comparison

A strategy to repair self-enhancement in which a person compares themselves to others who are worse off to make themselves feel better

Upward Social Comparison

A strategy to repair self-enhancement in which a person compares themselves to others who are better off to make themselves feel better

Compensatory Self-Enhancement

A strategy to repair self-enhancement in which a person thinks about their achievements when your failures are brought to you

Discounting

A strategy to repair self-enhancement in which a person downplays a recent failure to make themselves feel better

External Attributions

A strategy to repair self-enhancement in which a person uses a source outside of their own control to place the blame on

Internal Attributions

A strategy to repair self-enhancement in which a person uses a source within themselves to place the blame on

Basking in Reflective Glory (BIRG)

A strategy to repair self-enhancement in which a person will put themselves in the shoes of somebody successful and take the credit for their success

Face

Amount of social value that others give you if you live up to the standards associated with your position

Self-Improvement

Motivation to identify weaknesses and improve them

Prevention Orientation

A mindset related to Face in which a person takes a cautious and defensive approach to a lot of things in life to avoid negative outcomes

Promotion Orientation

A mindset related to Face in which a person concerns themselves with advancing themselves aspiring for gains

Collectivistic

What kind of cultures is Face common in?

They get less motivation from success, and more motivation to failure (persistence behavior)

How do more collectivistic cultures react to success/failure under Face?

They get less motivation from failure, and more motivation from success

How do more individualistic cultures react to success/failure under Face?

Existential Universal

What type of cultural universal characterizes Self-Enhancement and Self-Improvement?

Primary Control

The effort to shape existing realities to fit one’s perceptions, goals, or wishes

Secondary Control

The attempt to align oneself with existing realities, leaving circumstances unchanged but exerting control over their psychological impact

Collectivistic cultures find it easy to change themselves to fit the larger group, Individualistic cultures stress it in the perspective of the self

How does culture influence Primary/Secondary Control?

Individualistic cultures value choices that affect themselves, collectivistic cultures value decisions that affect people that they care about

How does culture influence choice?

The reaction and decisions of the children of the patient who is on life support changed based on what culture they came from

How does culture influence large decisions such as the death of a family member? (Iyengar & Lepper, 1999)

Indian people are more likely to make decisions based on preferences of other of whom they value

What were the results of Savani et al.’s studies about the meaning of choice in India?

Upper middle-class Americans preferred pens that they chose themselves over ones that they didn’t choose, working-class Americans did not show a preference

What were the results of Snibbe & Markus (2005)’s “Pen” study on social class’s effect on satisfaction with choices?

Analytic Thinking

A type of thinking characterized by a focus on objects and their attributes, more common in western cultures

Holistic Thinking

A type of thinking characterized by a focus on the context as a whole, more common in eastern cultures

Social experiences in individualistic/collectivistic cultures

What are some possible origins of analytic/holistic thinking?

Field Independence

The tendency to separate objects from their backgrounds, typically based on analytic thinking

Field Dependence

The tendency to view objects as bound to their backgrounds, typically based on holistic thinking

Japanese participants recognized the original background much better than the novel background, American participants recognized both equally well

What were the results of the “Fish Study” by Masuda & Nisbett (2001)?

American participants focused more of the central image, while Japanese participants focused more on the background

What were the results of the Masuda, Ellsworth et al (2007-2008) study on Americans/Japanese with backgrounds

Dispositional Attribution

Explaining people’s behavior in terms of their inner qualities, such as personality traits

Situational Attribution

Explaining people’s behavior in terms of contextual factors

Fundamental Attribution Error

A tendency to ignore situational information while focusing on dispositional information when making judgments about people’s behaviors

Our cultural experiences determine our preferred ways of making sense of the world

How does culture influence the Fundamental Attribution Error?

Americans tended to make more dispositional attributions as they got older, and Indians made more situational attributions.

What were the findings of Miller (1984)’s study on attribution across cultures and age groups?

Naive Dialecticism

A perspective in which events and objects in the world are perceived as interconnected and fluid, leading to the acceptance of contradiction between two opposing beliefs, also called “Tolerance for Contradiction”

Holistic Thinking

What kind of thinking encourages Naive Dialecticism?

Monochronic Time

A way of perceiving time in which the person sees the passage of time as linear and discrete, they prefer sequenced activities and are uncomfortable with shifts. Emphasis on schedule vs event, the “when” things will be achieved

Polychronic Time

A way of perceiving time in which the person sees the passage of time as continuous and flexible, they are more comfortable shifting attention between multiple events. Emphasis on event vs schedule, the “what” things will be achieved

Switzerland, Ireland, Germany, Japan, Italy

What countries were found to have the fastest pace of life? (Levine & Norenzayan, 1999)

Syria, Ecuador, Brazil, Indonesia, Mexico

What countries were found to have the slowest pace of life? (Levine & Norenzayan, 1999)

Stronger Economies, Higher Coronary Heart Disease Deaths, Higher Subjective Well-Being

What is an attribute of countries with a faster pace of living?

High-Context Culture

A culture in which shared information guides behavior; communication is less explicit

Low-Context Culture

A culture in which there is less shared information among individuals, so communication is more explicit

High-Context cultures communication is not as explicit as Low-Context cultures communication

How do High/Low context cultures affect communication between people?

Acculturation

A process of change/adjustment a person experiences when coming into contact with a new culture

Migrant

A person who moves from a heritage culture (the original culture) to a host culture (the new culture), either temporarily or permanently

Heritage Culture

A type of culture that a person was born into, or grew up in

Host Culture

A type of culture that is new to a person when they are moved into it/forced into it

Sojourner

A person who moves to a new culture and intends to stay only temporarily

Immigrant

A person who moves to a new culture and intends to stay permanently

First-Generation Immigrants

A type of immigrant in which the person was not born in the country immigrated into, and moved into the country during their life

Second-Generation Immigrants

A type of immigrant that is born into a family first-generation immigrants, are the first members of the family that are official citizens of the country

Culture Shock

The feeling of being anxious, helpless, irritable, and generally disoriented and homesick due to moving to a new culture, also called the “Crisis Stage”

Short honeymoon phase, then a longer culture shock (crisis stage), then eventually an adjustment stage

What is the common pattern of acculturation (culture shock) over time?

Cultural Distance

The difference between two cultures in their overall ways of life; a factor in the acculturation process

Countries closer/father away, individualistic/collectivistic, high/low view of authority, religious/non-religious

What are some examples of High/Low Cultural Distance?

Cultural Fit

The degree to which an individual’s personality is compatible with the host culture’s dominant cultural values; a factor in the acculturation process

Integration Strategy

An acculturation strategy that involves efforts to fit in and fully participate in the host culture, while at the same time striving to maintain the traditions of the heritage culture (Berry, Phinney, Sam, & Vedder, 2006)

Assimilation Strategy

An acculturation strategy that involves efforts to fit in and fully participate in the host culture, while making little or no effort to maintain the traditions of the heritage culture

Separation Strategy

An acculturation strategy that involves efforts to maintain the traditions of the heritage culture, while making little or no effort to participate in the host culture

Marginalization Strategy

An acculturation strategy that involves little or no effort to participate in the host culture or to maintain the traditions of the heritage culture

Multiculturalism Reaction

A reaction that the larger society can have to migrants in which there is positive maintenance of both the heritage culture and the host culture

Melting Pot Reaction

A reaction that the larger society can have to migrants in which there is negative maintenance in the heritage culture but positive maintenance in the host culture

Segregation Reaction

A reaction that the larger society can have to migrants in which there is positive maintenance in the heritage culture but negative maintenance in the host culture

Exclusion Reaction

A reaction that the larger society can have to migrants in which there is negative maintenance of both the heritage culture and the host culture

Blending

The tendency for bicultural people to show psychological characteristics that is a mix of those of their two cultures

Frame-Switching

Referring to multicultural people, alternating between different cultural selves

After 7 months, Canadian participants that moved to Japan had lower self-esteem, and Japanese participants had higher self-esteem after moving to Canada

What were the results of (Heine & Lehman, 2004)’s study on acculturation affecting self-esteem?

The more exposure to North American culture, the higher the self-esteem

What were the results of (Heine & Lehman, 2004)’s study on how self-esteem changes when exposed to North American culture

External cues from other cultures

What kind of cues can prompt frame-switching?

Chinese Students that were given American primes were less likely to make external attributions, Chinese primes were more likely to make external attributions

What were the results of (Hong et al. 2000)’s study about different cultural primes?

Happiness, Sadness, Fear, Anger, Surprise, Disgust

What are the six basic emotions?