CHAPTER 11 & 14 bx neuro quiz

SLEEP AND WAKING - CHAPTER 11

Biorhythms

3 Categories

  • Infradian

    • Less than once a day

    • Menstrual cycle

  • Circadian

    • Sleep wake cycle

    • Coordinates biochemical, physiological and bx

  • Ultradian

    • More than once a day

    • Sleep cycle

  • Zeitgebers: external cue that biorhythm depends upon

    • Natural light, clock

  • Free running circadian: absence of zeitgebers

    • Biosphere study: Environment with only artificial lighting and no clock

      • Sleep wake cycle gets long

    • Someone who is completely blind or working in coal mines or submarines can have some sleep disorders

  • Entrainment: Reset

    • Impact of light deprivation

      • No reset

Individual Variations in Sleep Patterns

  • Morning (lark) vs. evening (night owl) people

    • Positive emotions and subjective well-being higher in those who are morning ppl

  • Adolescence shift → much more likely to be night owls

    • Tend to have lower levels of Melatonin

    • Mature brain is much more likely to be a morning person/ more alert

Shift Work: work schedule is at odds of general sleep wake cycle (2nd or 3rd shift)

  • Shift maladaptation syndrome

    • Disturbed sleep for evening and night shift workers

    • Health, personality, mood, and interpersonal problems

    • Accident rates higher

    • Lark vs. night owl

      • 2nd shift night owls are better off than larks

      • 3rd shift is bad for everyone

        • Worse if work schedule varies

Jet Lag, and Daylight-Saving Time

  • Jet lag

    • Conflict b/w zeitgeber and interal clock

    • If gained time then it isnt really a problem, but if you lose time then symptoms are more present

    • Fatigue, irritability, sleepiness

  • Daylight saving time

    • Symptoms of jet lag

    • Risk of heart attack

Body’s Internal Clocks Manage Circadian Rhythms

  • Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) (master clock)

    • Keep circadian rhythm

    • Oscillation of protein production and degradation is a mechanism that allows the brain’s master clock tell time

  • Intrinsically photosensitive retinal cells info to SCN → melanospin (photopigment)-light receptor cell

  • SCN >>> SNS >>> pineal gland>>> melatonin

  • Regulation by SCN

    • Body temp, hormone secretion, urine production, blood pressure

    • Can adjust to a phase shift → daylight savings, difference in sleep from weekdays to weekends

    • SCN (1-2 cycles) vs. peripheral clocks (take longer)

Biochemistry of Circadian Rhythms

  • Melatonin

    • Starts to increase at 10 or 11am

    • Peak at 4 AM

      • 2nd peak?

        • May have another around 3-4 pm

    • Effects

      • Pineal gland tumors, constant exposure to light, melatonin supplements, immune system (stronger w proper amounts)

  • Cortisol

    • High in morning, low at night

    • Effects on heart rate, blood pressure, energy

    • Impact of crossing time zones

Neural Correlates of Waking and Sleep

Electroencephalogram (EEG) Recordings of Waking and Sleep

  • Desynchronous: independent action

  • Synchronous: dependent action (unison) → deep sleep

—--Waking

  • Typically alternate between beta and alpha

Brain Wave Frequencies

  • Gamma – greater than 30 cps (cycles per second) → “in the zone”

  • Beta – 14-30 cps → alert, focused

  • Alpha – 8-13 cps → relaxed wakefulness

  • Theta – 3-7 cps → light sleep (still have some awareness of outside world)

  • Delta – less than 3 cps → deep sleep

Sleep Cycle

  • Sleep (90-120 minute cycles)

    • 1 NREM (theta, 10-15 minutes, SNS slows)

    • 2 NREM (theta/sleep spindles/K-complex, 15 minutes, 50% of sleep, SNS)

      • Sleep spindle: sudden burst of activity, happens every 14 seconds

      • K-complex: opposite of sleep spindle, (single delta wave)

    • 3 NREM (theta/20% delta, 5-40 minutes): deep sleep

    • REM (beta/theta, SNS active but major muscle paralysis)

      • Breathing and heart rate increase

Brain Networks Control Waking and Sleep

  • Default mode network (DFN)

    • Mind wandering/daydreaming → unfocused thought

    • 50% of time awake in DMN

    • Inverse relationship between focused activity & DMN

  • NREM Sleep networks

    • Preoptic area (POA) of hypothalamus → (homeostasis)

    • Monitors sleep debt (duration & intensity of sleep)

      • Consistent sleep deprivation

    • Electrical stimulation of POA produces immediate NREM sleep

  • REM Networks

    • Pons active during REM

    • Pons also responsible for muscle paralysis and REM movements

    • Frontal lobe → inactive

    • Hippocampus → more active, impact dreams

    • Amygdala → more active, emotional (fear)

    • Anterior cingulate cortex → active, pleasure

Biochemical Correlates of Waking and Sleep

  • Adenosine

    • Builds up during wakefulness

    • Gradually drops during sleep

    • Caffeine blocks adenosine receptors

  • Melatonin

    • Onset of dark cycle

    • Surge before “opening of sleep gate” → right before you fall asleep

Functions of Sleep

Changes in Sleep over the Lifetime

  • Infants (newborn/1st month)

    • 12-16 hours total sleep, 50% REM, more w premature

    • Up to 12 months

      • 13 hours total sleep

    • 1-5 years

      • 8.7 hours, higher delta (very deep sleep) wave time 3-6yrs

        • More deep sleep than any other age

    • Puberty

      • Want more sleep (9-10 hours), less delta

    • 50’s and older

      • Lose 27 minutes oer decade, less delta

      • Calcification of pineal gland (less melatonin), less sleep spindles (sudden burst of activity during 2NREM)

        • Impact quantity and quality of sleep

      • Elderly adults may produce less melatonin bc of calcification of the pineal

EFFECTS OF SLEEP DEPRIVATION

  • Hallucination after 72 hours

  • Longest someone stayed awake was 11 days (recovered fine)

Possible Advantages of Sleep

  • Safety

    • Impact on amount of sleep

      • We have a safe environment to sleep

      • Horse gets least amount of sleep

        • No protection other than running

      • Sloth gets most sleep

        • Safe in trees

  • Physical restoration (NREM)

    • Restores body, conserves energy

      • Immune system, healing (cannot heal wounds when sleep deprived), neurogenesis (creation of new neurons), joint/muscle pain

    • Animals >>> metabolism >>> sleep

      • Animals that have a faster metabolism → more sleep

    • Human growth hormone (GH) (stage 3)

  • Memory consolidation

    • NREM (verbal)

    • 2 NREM (procedural→ tasks)

    • REM (emotional)

  • Special Benefits of REM Sleep

    • Mammals and birds

    • Increases after learning

      • Studying before sleeping

    • Changes over lifespan (brain development)

      • More REM as infant (exposed to many stimuli)

      • 2-4 yrs → overproducing synapses

    • REM deprivation

      • REM rebound

        • We have more REM when we have learned something that day

      • Irritability

      • Difficulty concentrating

Possible Functions of Dreaming

  • REM & DMN continuum

    • Daydreaming is positive, provides relief

3 reaons why we dream:

  • Activation-synthesis theory

    • What we dream about reflects the specific area of our brain that was active

  • Neural network model

    • Dream to try to forget info that is irrelevant

    • Mental house keeping theory (deciding what memories to keep)

  • Evolutionary model

    • When stressed → dream more

    • Amygdala more active during dreaming

    • Falling or flying dream – vestibular system is overactivated

  • Lucid dreaming

    • Control of dreams

    • 55% of adults have had a lucid dream

    • Can train yourself

      • Have dream journal

    • Athletes trained

      • They were supposed to have a dream about exercising

        • Those who dreamt exercise showed some muscular development

  • Nightmare

    • During REM

    • Negative intense emotional dream (story/theme)

  • Sleep (night) terror

    • Typically delta (deep sleep, stage 3)

    • Random scary thought

Sleep-Wake Disorders

Major Depressive Disorder with Seasonal Pattern (seasonal affective disorder)

  • Person mets criteria for major depression (5 symptoms for 2weeks, disruption of life)

  • Cause: insufficient amount of daylight

    • Decrease in serotonin–precursor to melatonin) → less melatonin

    • Genetic variations

      • Melanopsin

  • Treatment

    • Light therapy

    • Impact of timing of light therapy

      • Hard time waking up in morning →use in morning

Insomnia

  • Most common sleep disorder

  • Role of stress

    • Stress is the most common cause

    • Cant shut off the mind when wanting to sleep

  • Onset

    • Difficulty falling asleep

      • Longer than 15 min to fall asleep when tired (episode can occur)

  • Maintenance

    • Fall asleep okay but can not stay asleep

  • Pseudo insomia

    • False

    • States that they can not fall asleep

    • But when in sleep study they are asleep

      • Dream that they are awake

  • Tx

    • Natural

      • Sleep hygiene

        • Sleep at same time

        • Avoid screen time

        • No caffeine before sleep

        • Avoid exercise before sleep

        • Get up at the same time

        • Bedroom is really only for sleep

    • Medical

      • Ambien

      • Melatonin

        • Go to bed later, when actually tired → reset circadian rhythm

Narcolepsy

  • Sleep attack → fall asleep without intending to

  • Fairly brief

    • 10-20 min

  • Happens every 2-3 hrs

  • Results from disruptions in the synthesis of receptors for orexin

  • Episodes

    • Immediate REM sleep

      • Muscle paralysis

    • Additional symptoms

      • Sleep paralysis

      • Dream while awake

        • Hypnagogic: dreaming before falling asleep

        • Hypnopompic: dreaming after “waking”

      • Muscle paralysis while awake → cataplexy

        • Warning for episode

Breathing-Related Sleep Disorders

  • Obstructive sleep apnea (hypopnea—shallow breathing)

    • Stop breathing / pathways close

    • 100s of episodes in the night

    • Intense snoring

    • Sleep on back, overweight, more common in males, increased risk of heart disease and strokes

    • Breathing machine tx

  • Central sleep apnea

    • Area of brain that controls breathing (medulla) does not function properly during sleep

    • 1-2 min

    • Possibly stimulation of brain for tx

SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome)

  • Ages 2-4 months

  • Position for sleeping

    • On their back, in their crib

  • Breastfeeding

    • Lower risk of SIDS if child is breastfed, opposed to bottle fed

  • Cigarette smoke

  • Overcrowding

    • Environment, crowded apartment, lots of stuff in baby bed (increases risk)

  • Winter

    • More likely to happen in^ also in a premature birth

Sleep talking (Somniloquy)

  • Age

    • More common in grade school to high school

  • Happens in the lighter stages of REM & NREM

  • Respond to external stimuli

Sleep walking (somnambulism)

  • Most common in 4-12 year olds

  • Delta NREM (deep sleep)

    • Routine activity

  • Genetic link

  • Can increase with stress

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

  • Lack of paralysis

    • “acting out dreams”

  • Inherited or brain damage (pons)

Restless Leg Syndrome (RLS)

  • Regular movements during sleep

CHAPTER 14 - SOCIAL & AFFECTIVE NEUROSCIENCE

Components of Emotion

  • Physiological

    • Heart rate, breathing, body temp

  • Behavior

    • Facial expression, interact w someone else

  • Thought

    • Ideas, beliefs, influence emotion, perspective will have significant impact

  • Conscious, subjective experience

    • Emotions are personal

    • Worse if message (“you shouldn’t feel that way”) is received by child → child will doubt emotions

Evolution & Adaptive Benefits of Emotion

  • Energy creation

    • Emotions help with general arousal, and ability to respond

  • Yerkes-Dodson

    • Want a moderate amount of anxiety

  • Direction of movement

    • Positive (toward)

      • $5 on sidewalk

    • Negative (away)

  • Emotions and nonverbal communication

    • Facial expression (survivial value)

      • Guides bx (from own expression and others)

        • Threat detection

    • Body language

Models of Emotion

  • James-Lange Theory of Emotion

STIMULUS >>> autonomic nervous system (ANS) AROUSAL >>> EMOTION

  • Imitation of facial expression & empathy

    • Imitating facial expressions increases empathy

    • Catharsis

      • Purging of emotion

      • Rumination

        • Sitting in one’s own thoughts and feelings (bad)

    • Flaw to theory

      • Not distinct physical sensation for each emotion

      • Example for “crossing the bridge” study

        • Male participants interviewed by female interviewer

          • Control: at the park

          • Tx: on a high suspension bridge

        • The tx group attributed the increase in heart rate being attracted to the interviewer

  • Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

    • Stimulus → ANS arousal and feeling

      • Simultaneously

      • independent

  • Schachter-Singer Two factor Theory of Emotion

Stimulus → ANS arousal → Cognitive apprasial → feeling

  • Cognitive appraisal

    • Why is the ANS aroused

      • Dog chasing you → heart rate increase → my dog? Random dog? → happiness or fear

Contemporary Theories of Emotion

  • Use both James-Lange & Schachter-Singer

    • James-Lange

      • Precise physical sensation

      • Immediate reponse

    • Schachter-Singer

      • Ambiguous physical sensation

      • Delayed response

  • Somatic markers

    • Feeling associated with paricular/ prior experience

    • Subjective feeling mapped as positive/ negative

Controlling Facial Expression

  • Use whole body

    • Emphasis on face (especially eyes), face module infants

      • Begins in infancy

        • Programmed to pay attention to faces

  • Cranial nerves

    • Facial nerve

      • Superficial nerves (skin, facial expression)

    • Trigeminal nerve

      • Deeper nerves (bones of the head, chewing food & speaking)

  • Upper vs. lower facial nerves (impact - damage to nerves)

    • Upper third bilateral control

    • Lower 2/3rds contralateral

  • Major pathways

    • Primary motor cortex

      • Voluntary, volitional facial paresis

        • A person asks you to smile

    • Subcortical system

      • Spontaneous, emotional facial paresis

        • Something is humerous

Biological Contributions to Emotional Expression

  • 8 basic emotions & expressions

    • All cultures and throughout time

  • Impact of blindness

    • Blind individual still expresses emotions

  • Impact of isolation

    • Still express emotions

Environmental Contributions to Emotional Expression

  • Training

    • Show or not show emotions

    • Doctor

      • Regulate emotions to keep patient calm

  • Presence of others

    • More intense positive emotions when with others

    • Less intense negative emotions when with others

  • Cultural display rules

    • Japanese vs. American

    • Americans are more open to show emotions/expressions in public

    • Japan is taught to regulate emotions in front of other people/ in public

      • Increase in emotions when alone

Individual Differences in Emotional Expression & Recognition

  • Begins in infancy

  • Highly reactivity to environmental stimuli → difficult temperment

  • Extremely low reactivity to environmental stimuli → slow to warm up temperment

  • Disorders associated with low ability to understand facial expression

    • Antisocial personality disorder

    • Schizophrenia

    • autism

Lie Detection

  • Signs

    • Change in body movements

    • More “um” and “uh”

    • Less story detail

    • Tell story backwards

      • Validate story

    • No Duchenne smile

      • No eye movement/expression during smile

  • Polygraph

    • Respiration, sweating, blood pressure

Autonomic Nervous System & Emotion

General arousal

  • Areas of the brain & emotion

    • Amygdala

      • Initiates arousal, and processes stimuli

      • Fear, anxiety, and aggression

      • Lesion vs stimulation

    • Insula

      • Where frontal and temporal lobe

      • Discriminate between positive and negative stimuli

    • Anterior cignulate cortex

      • More conscious appraisals about threat

      • Information about physical pain, reward, and decision making

    • Basil ganglia

      • Recognizing facial expression (disgust)

        • Most people have asymmetrical faces

      • Coordination of movement

        • Respond to emotional stimuli

    • Cerbral cortex

      • Forntal lobe and anxiety

        • When we think about events with anxiety, levels of anxiety decrease

          • Planning

      • Left cerbral hemisphere

        • Processes more positive emotions

      • Right cerebral hemisphere

        • Processes more negative emotions

        • Focus more positive/gratitude→easier to remember positive events

      • Lateralization of right cerebral hemisphere

        • Overall, right processes more emotions than the left

        • Naturally focus more on the negative

          • Negative emotions tend to be more powerful→ tendency to focus on the negative

  • Patterns of activation & emotion

    • Widespread area of brain

  • Stress and stressors

    • Stress: unpleasant and disruptive state from the perception of danger (state of needing to adjust)

      • Eustress: “the spice of life”; type of stress that + your ability to function. Positive short term stress, helps you get stuff done, beneficial

      • Distress “kiss of death”; a state in which your ability to function is compromised

    • Event itself

      • Major event (new job, death, marriage)

      • Daily hassle (minor, common occurrence

        • Accumulcation can be very stressful

          • Can be more stressful than major event

      • Conflict

        • Approach-approach

          • 2 opinions, like both

        • Avoidance-avoidance

          • 2 options, you dont like either one

        • Approach-avoidance

          • 2 options, like 1 don't like 1

Situations w positives and neg

Stress- Hans Selye & General Adaptation Syndrome

  • Walter Cannon’s fight-or-flight

    • Quick, immediate response to stressor

    • (tend & befriend)

      • Stressor → seek support from others

      • Females more likely to respond this way

      • Males protectors → fight or flight

      • Females nurture → seek support

  • Selye’s theory

    • Alarm

      • Fight of flight (is just the first stage)

    • Resistance

      • Continue coping

    • Exhaustion

      • Energy depleted

Responses to Stress

  • Coordinate physical, cognitive, and behavioral

  • Activation of SNS

  • Hypothalamus activates endocrine system

  • Use energy to flee or fight

Stress & the Amygdala

  • Helps with determining threat

  • Thalamus >>> amygdala (emotion of fear)

  • Thalamus >>> cortex (determine cause of fear) (C→C)

Stress, SAM, & HPA

  • Sympathetic adrenal-medullary

    • Hypothalamus >> SNS >> adrenal (adrenaline & norepinephrine)

    • Immediate response, short-lived

    • Fight or flight response

  • Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

    • Amygdala >> hypothalamus (corticotrophin-releasing hormone & vasopressin) >> pituitary (adrenocorticotropic hormone) >> adrenal (cortisol)

    • Slower, last longer (cortisol 3 hours)

    • Hippocampus – inhibit CRH if too high

  • Stress and immune system

    • SAM → immune system is enhanced

    • HPA → immune system is supressed

Stress & Epigenetics

  • Highly attentive rat mothers

    • Sensitive to cortisol levels

      • Respond appropriately; beneficial

    • Lower hormonal and bx response

  • Low attentive rat mothers

    • Low sensitivity to hormone levels

      • Much longer time for those hormone levels to return to normal

      • Not licking, not nurturing

Stress, the Immune System, & Health

  • Stress hormones

    • Suppress activity of lymphocytes

  • B lymphocytes (vaccinations)

    • Release antibodies, programmed to fight specific antigens

  • T lymphocytes

    • Cancer cells and other antigens

  • Type A vs. Type B

    • Type A: competitive, time conscious, productivity, difficulty relaxing

      • Cynical, chronic hostility (i.e, road rage)

      • Greater health problems

    • Type B: laid back, eb n flow

  • Chronic stress

    • Greater suppression of immune system

    • Cortisol

      • Increase blood pressue

      • Increase fat release

Aggression & Violence

  • Types of aggression

    • Premeditated: planning, proactive (youre the one who starts it)

    • Impulsive: hot aggression, reactive (someone else has initiated and we respond)

Genetics, Environment, Epigenetics, & Aggression

  • Genetic link

    • Aggression can be bred

      • “Bull” breeds

    • Heritability of impulsive agression

  • Epigenetics

    • Interaction b/w levels of monoamine (dopamine) oxidase A & child maltreatment

      • Low levels of enzyme & high levels of child maltreatment → antisocial bx

      • Low levels of enzymes & NO child maltreatment → no antisocial bx

  • Environment

    • Breakdown of social institutions (marriage)

      • Culture where divorce is common and not stigmatized

      • Focus on function of partents after divorce (parenting)

    • Community support

      • As communities are getting more crowded, people are keeping to themselves

Brain Structures and Aggression

  • Hypothalamus

    • Stimulation of medial (violent) vs. lateral (hunting)

    • Removal of cerbral cortices

      • Inhibit hypothalamus → “sham rage” (violent, uncontrolled, undirected rage)

  • Amygdala

  • Anterior cingulate cortex

    • Inhibit aggressive bx

    • Lesion→ can not inhibit

  • Orbitofrontal cortex

    • Inhibit aggressive bx

    • Lesion→ can not inhibit

Biochemistry & Aggression

  • Alcohol use

    • Alters ability of ACC & OFC to inhibit aggression

    • “Agreesive drunks” know what to watch out for

  • Testosterone

    • Increase reactivity to threats (males & females)

    • Rats (castrated or adminstered)

  • Serotonin

    • Facilitates activity of ACC & OFC

    • Encourage empathy?

Pleasure & Reward (From Chapter 9)

  • Classical Research in Self-Stimulation

    • Olds & Milner (1954)

      • Wire electrode in rat’s brain

        • Can reward self

      • Intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS)

        • Would spend most time rewarding self

    • Routtenberg & Lindy (1965)

      • 2 levers (food or ICSS)

      • Choice of ICSS

        • Would starve self

    • Humans- septal area of brain (reward center)

  • Rewards Pathway

    • Natural stimulation of area

      • Eating, sexual activity

    • Unnatural behaviors

      • Gambling >>> eating

    • Dopamine

      • Amount released

      • Amount of blocking

  • Cortical Processing of Reward

    • Ability to delay gratification

      • Distant vs. immediate

      • Much more successful if can delay

    • Implication of anterior cingulate cortex

      • Cost-benefit decisions (assign value)

    • Orbitofrontal cortex

      • Damage leads to poor decisions

      • Linked to antisocial personality disorder (not thinking about consequences)

    • Prefrontal cortex

      • Reduces impulses


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CHAPTER 11 & 14 bx neuro quiz

SLEEP AND WAKING - CHAPTER 11

Biorhythms

3 Categories

  • Infradian
    • Less than once a day
    • Menstrual cycle
  • Circadian
    • Sleep wake cycle
    • Coordinates biochemical, physiological and bx
  • Ultradian
    • More than once a day
    • Sleep cycle
  • Zeitgebers: external cue that biorhythm depends upon
    • Natural light, clock
  • Free running circadian: absence of zeitgebers
    • Biosphere study: Environment with only artificial lighting and no clock
      • Sleep wake cycle gets long
    • Someone who is completely blind or working in coal mines or submarines can have some sleep disorders
  • Entrainment: Reset
    • Impact of light deprivation
      • No reset

Individual Variations in Sleep Patterns

  • Morning (lark) vs. evening (night owl) people
    • Positive emotions and subjective well-being higher in those who are morning ppl
  • Adolescence shift → much more likely to be night owls
    • Tend to have lower levels of Melatonin
    • Mature brain is much more likely to be a morning person/ more alert

Shift Work: work schedule is at odds of general sleep wake cycle (2nd or 3rd shift)

  • Shift maladaptation syndrome
    • Disturbed sleep for evening and night shift workers
    • Health, personality, mood, and interpersonal problems
    • Accident rates higher
    • Lark vs. night owl
      • 2nd shift night owls are better off than larks
      • 3rd shift is bad for everyone
        • Worse if work schedule varies

Jet Lag, and Daylight-Saving Time

  • Jet lag
    • Conflict b/w zeitgeber and interal clock
    • If gained time then it isnt really a problem, but if you lose time then symptoms are more present
    • Fatigue, irritability, sleepiness
  • Daylight saving time
    • Symptoms of jet lag
    • Risk of heart attack

Body’s Internal Clocks Manage Circadian Rhythms

  • Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) (master clock)
    • Keep circadian rhythm
    • Oscillation of protein production and degradation is a mechanism that allows the brain’s master clock tell time
  • Intrinsically photosensitive retinal cells info to SCN → melanospin (photopigment)-light receptor cell
  • SCN >>> SNS >>> pineal gland>>> melatonin
  • Regulation by SCN
    • Body temp, hormone secretion, urine production, blood pressure
    • Can adjust to a phase shift → daylight savings, difference in sleep from weekdays to weekends
    • SCN (1-2 cycles) vs. peripheral clocks (take longer)

Biochemistry of Circadian Rhythms

  • Melatonin
    • Starts to increase at 10 or 11am
    • Peak at 4 AM
      • 2nd peak?
        • May have another around 3-4 pm
    • Effects
      • Pineal gland tumors, constant exposure to light, melatonin supplements, immune system (stronger w proper amounts)
  • Cortisol
    • High in morning, low at night
    • Effects on heart rate, blood pressure, energy
    • Impact of crossing time zones

Neural Correlates of Waking and Sleep

Electroencephalogram (EEG) Recordings of Waking and Sleep

  • Desynchronous: independent action
  • Synchronous: dependent action (unison) → deep sleep

—--Waking

  • Typically alternate between beta and alpha

Brain Wave Frequencies

  • Gamma – greater than 30 cps (cycles per second) → “in the zone”
  • Beta – 14-30 cps → alert, focused
  • Alpha – 8-13 cps → relaxed wakefulness
  • Theta – 3-7 cps → light sleep (still have some awareness of outside world)
  • Delta – less than 3 cps → deep sleep

Sleep Cycle

  • Sleep (90-120 minute cycles)
    • 1 NREM (theta, 10-15 minutes, SNS slows)
    • 2 NREM (theta/sleep spindles/K-complex, 15 minutes, 50% of sleep, SNS)
      • Sleep spindle: sudden burst of activity, happens every 14 seconds
      • K-complex: opposite of sleep spindle, (single delta wave)
    • 3 NREM (theta/20% delta, 5-40 minutes): deep sleep
    • REM (beta/theta, SNS active but major muscle paralysis)
      • Breathing and heart rate increase

Brain Networks Control Waking and Sleep

  • Default mode network (DFN)
    • Mind wandering/daydreaming → unfocused thought
    • 50% of time awake in DMN
    • Inverse relationship between focused activity & DMN
  • NREM Sleep networks
    • Preoptic area (POA) of hypothalamus → (homeostasis)
    • Monitors sleep debt (duration & intensity of sleep)
      • Consistent sleep deprivation
    • Electrical stimulation of POA produces immediate NREM sleep
  • REM Networks
    • Pons active during REM
    • Pons also responsible for muscle paralysis and REM movements
    • Frontal lobe → inactive
    • Hippocampus → more active, impact dreams
    • Amygdala → more active, emotional (fear)
    • Anterior cingulate cortex → active, pleasure

Biochemical Correlates of Waking and Sleep

  • Adenosine
    • Builds up during wakefulness
    • Gradually drops during sleep
    • Caffeine blocks adenosine receptors
  • Melatonin
    • Onset of dark cycle
    • Surge before “opening of sleep gate” → right before you fall asleep

Functions of Sleep

Changes in Sleep over the Lifetime

    • Infants (newborn/1st month)
      • 12-16 hours total sleep, 50% REM, more w premature
    • Up to 12 months
      • 13 hours total sleep
    • 1-5 years
      • 8.7 hours, higher delta (very deep sleep) wave time 3-6yrs
        • More deep sleep than any other age
    • Puberty
      • Want more sleep (9-10 hours), less delta
    • 50’s and older
      • Lose 27 minutes oer decade, less delta
      • Calcification of pineal gland (less melatonin), less sleep spindles (sudden burst of activity during 2NREM)
        • Impact quantity and quality of sleep
      • Elderly adults may produce less melatonin bc of calcification of the pineal

EFFECTS OF SLEEP DEPRIVATION

  • Hallucination after 72 hours
  • Longest someone stayed awake was 11 days (recovered fine)

Possible Advantages of Sleep

  • Safety
    • Impact on amount of sleep
      • We have a safe environment to sleep
      • Horse gets least amount of sleep
        • No protection other than running
      • Sloth gets most sleep
        • Safe in trees
  • Physical restoration (NREM)
    • Restores body, conserves energy
      • Immune system, healing (cannot heal wounds when sleep deprived), neurogenesis (creation of new neurons), joint/muscle pain
    • Animals >>> metabolism >>> sleep
      • Animals that have a faster metabolism → more sleep
    • Human growth hormone (GH) (stage 3)
  • Memory consolidation
    • NREM (verbal)
    • 2 NREM (procedural→ tasks)
    • REM (emotional)
  • Special Benefits of REM Sleep
    • Mammals and birds
    • Increases after learning
      • Studying before sleeping
    • Changes over lifespan (brain development)
      • More REM as infant (exposed to many stimuli)
      • 2-4 yrs → overproducing synapses
    • REM deprivation
      • REM rebound
        • We have more REM when we have learned something that day
      • Irritability
      • Difficulty concentrating

Possible Functions of Dreaming

  • REM & DMN continuum
    • Daydreaming is positive, provides relief

3 reaons why we dream:

  • Activation-synthesis theory
    • What we dream about reflects the specific area of our brain that was active
  • Neural network model
    • Dream to try to forget info that is irrelevant
    • Mental house keeping theory (deciding what memories to keep)
  • Evolutionary model
    • When stressed → dream more
    • Amygdala more active during dreaming
    • Falling or flying dream – vestibular system is overactivated
  • Lucid dreaming
    • Control of dreams
    • 55% of adults have had a lucid dream
    • Can train yourself
      • Have dream journal
    • Athletes trained
      • They were supposed to have a dream about exercising
        • Those who dreamt exercise showed some muscular development
  • Nightmare
    • During REM
    • Negative intense emotional dream (story/theme)
  • Sleep (night) terror
    • Typically delta (deep sleep, stage 3)
    • Random scary thought

Sleep-Wake Disorders

Major Depressive Disorder with Seasonal Pattern (seasonal affective disorder)

  • Person mets criteria for major depression (5 symptoms for 2weeks, disruption of life)
  • Cause: insufficient amount of daylight
    • Decrease in serotonin–precursor to melatonin) → less melatonin
    • Genetic variations
      • Melanopsin
  • Treatment
    • Light therapy
    • Impact of timing of light therapy
      • Hard time waking up in morning →use in morning

Insomnia

  • Most common sleep disorder
  • Role of stress
    • Stress is the most common cause
    • Cant shut off the mind when wanting to sleep
  • Onset
    • Difficulty falling asleep
      • Longer than 15 min to fall asleep when tired (episode can occur)
  • Maintenance
    • Fall asleep okay but can not stay asleep
  • Pseudo insomia
    • False
    • States that they can not fall asleep
    • But when in sleep study they are asleep
      • Dream that they are awake
  • Tx
    • Natural
      • Sleep hygiene
        • Sleep at same time
        • Avoid screen time
        • No caffeine before sleep
        • Avoid exercise before sleep
        • Get up at the same time
        • Bedroom is really only for sleep
    • Medical
      • Ambien
      • Melatonin
        • Go to bed later, when actually tired → reset circadian rhythm

Narcolepsy

  • Sleep attack → fall asleep without intending to
  • Fairly brief
    • 10-20 min
  • Happens every 2-3 hrs
  • Results from disruptions in the synthesis of receptors for orexin
  • Episodes
    • Immediate REM sleep
      • Muscle paralysis
    • Additional symptoms
      • Sleep paralysis
      • Dream while awake
        • Hypnagogic: dreaming before falling asleep
        • Hypnopompic: dreaming after “waking”
      • Muscle paralysis while awake → cataplexy
        • Warning for episode

Breathing-Related Sleep Disorders

  • Obstructive sleep apnea (hypopnea—shallow breathing)
    • Stop breathing / pathways close
    • 100s of episodes in the night
    • Intense snoring
    • Sleep on back, overweight, more common in males, increased risk of heart disease and strokes
    • Breathing machine tx
  • Central sleep apnea
    • Area of brain that controls breathing (medulla) does not function properly during sleep
    • 1-2 min
    • Possibly stimulation of brain for tx

SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome)

  • Ages 2-4 months
  • Position for sleeping
    • On their back, in their crib
  • Breastfeeding
    • Lower risk of SIDS if child is breastfed, opposed to bottle fed
  • Cigarette smoke
  • Overcrowding
    • Environment, crowded apartment, lots of stuff in baby bed (increases risk)
  • Winter
    • More likely to happen in^ also in a premature birth

Sleep talking (Somniloquy)

  • Age
    • More common in grade school to high school
  • Happens in the lighter stages of REM & NREM
  • Respond to external stimuli

Sleep walking (somnambulism)

  • Most common in 4-12 year olds
  • Delta NREM (deep sleep)
    • Routine activity
  • Genetic link
  • Can increase with stress

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

  • Lack of paralysis
    • “acting out dreams”
  • Inherited or brain damage (pons)

Restless Leg Syndrome (RLS)

  • Regular movements during sleep

CHAPTER 14 - SOCIAL & AFFECTIVE NEUROSCIENCE

Components of Emotion

  • Physiological
    • Heart rate, breathing, body temp
  • Behavior
    • Facial expression, interact w someone else
  • Thought
    • Ideas, beliefs, influence emotion, perspective will have significant impact
  • Conscious, subjective experience
    • Emotions are personal
    • Worse if message (“you shouldn’t feel that way”) is received by child → child will doubt emotions

Evolution & Adaptive Benefits of Emotion

  • Energy creation
    • Emotions help with general arousal, and ability to respond
  • Yerkes-Dodson
    • Want a moderate amount of anxiety
  • Direction of movement
    • Positive (toward)
      • $5 on sidewalk
    • Negative (away)
  • Emotions and nonverbal communication
    • Facial expression (survivial value)
      • Guides bx (from own expression and others)
        • Threat detection
    • Body language

Models of Emotion

  • James-Lange Theory of Emotion

STIMULUS >>> autonomic nervous system (ANS) AROUSAL >>> EMOTION

    • Imitation of facial expression & empathy
      • Imitating facial expressions increases empathy
    • Catharsis
      • Purging of emotion
      • Rumination
        • Sitting in one’s own thoughts and feelings (bad)
    • Flaw to theory
      • Not distinct physical sensation for each emotion
      • Example for “crossing the bridge” study
        • Male participants interviewed by female interviewer
          • Control: at the park
          • Tx: on a high suspension bridge
        • The tx group attributed the increase in heart rate being attracted to the interviewer
  • Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
    • Stimulus → ANS arousal and feeling
      • Simultaneously
      • independent
  • Schachter-Singer Two factor Theory of Emotion

Stimulus → ANS arousal → Cognitive apprasial → feeling

  • Cognitive appraisal
    • Why is the ANS aroused
      • Dog chasing you → heart rate increase → my dog? Random dog? → happiness or fear

Contemporary Theories of Emotion

  • Use both James-Lange & Schachter-Singer
    • James-Lange
      • Precise physical sensation
      • Immediate reponse
    • Schachter-Singer
      • Ambiguous physical sensation
      • Delayed response
  • Somatic markers
    • Feeling associated with paricular/ prior experience
    • Subjective feeling mapped as positive/ negative

Controlling Facial Expression

  • Use whole body
    • Emphasis on face (especially eyes), face module infants
      • Begins in infancy
        • Programmed to pay attention to faces
  • Cranial nerves
    • Facial nerve
      • Superficial nerves (skin, facial expression)
    • Trigeminal nerve
      • Deeper nerves (bones of the head, chewing food & speaking)
  • Upper vs. lower facial nerves (impact - damage to nerves)
    • Upper third bilateral control
    • Lower 2/3rds contralateral
  • Major pathways
    • Primary motor cortex
      • Voluntary, volitional facial paresis
        • A person asks you to smile
    • Subcortical system
      • Spontaneous, emotional facial paresis
        • Something is humerous

Biological Contributions to Emotional Expression

  • 8 basic emotions & expressions
    • All cultures and throughout time
  • Impact of blindness
    • Blind individual still expresses emotions
  • Impact of isolation
    • Still express emotions

Environmental Contributions to Emotional Expression

  • Training
    • Show or not show emotions
    • Doctor
      • Regulate emotions to keep patient calm
  • Presence of others
    • More intense positive emotions when with others
    • Less intense negative emotions when with others
  • Cultural display rules
    • Japanese vs. American
    • Americans are more open to show emotions/expressions in public
    • Japan is taught to regulate emotions in front of other people/ in public
      • Increase in emotions when alone

Individual Differences in Emotional Expression & Recognition

  • Begins in infancy
  • Highly reactivity to environmental stimuli → difficult temperment
  • Extremely low reactivity to environmental stimuli → slow to warm up temperment
  • Disorders associated with low ability to understand facial expression
    • Antisocial personality disorder
    • Schizophrenia
    • autism

Lie Detection

  • Signs
    • Change in body movements
    • More “um” and “uh”
    • Less story detail
    • Tell story backwards
      • Validate story
    • No Duchenne smile
      • No eye movement/expression during smile
  • Polygraph
    • Respiration, sweating, blood pressure

Autonomic Nervous System & Emotion

General arousal

  • Areas of the brain & emotion
    • Amygdala
      • Initiates arousal, and processes stimuli
      • Fear, anxiety, and aggression
      • Lesion vs stimulation
    • Insula
      • Where frontal and temporal lobe
      • Discriminate between positive and negative stimuli
    • Anterior cignulate cortex
      • More conscious appraisals about threat
      • Information about physical pain, reward, and decision making
    • Basil ganglia
      • Recognizing facial expression (disgust)
        • Most people have asymmetrical faces
      • Coordination of movement
        • Respond to emotional stimuli
    • Cerbral cortex
      • Forntal lobe and anxiety
        • When we think about events with anxiety, levels of anxiety decrease
          • Planning
      • Left cerbral hemisphere
        • Processes more positive emotions
      • Right cerebral hemisphere
        • Processes more negative emotions
        • Focus more positive/gratitude→easier to remember positive events
      • Lateralization of right cerebral hemisphere
        • Overall, right processes more emotions than the left
        • Naturally focus more on the negative
          • Negative emotions tend to be more powerful→ tendency to focus on the negative
  • Patterns of activation & emotion
    • Widespread area of brain
  • Stress and stressors
    • Stress: unpleasant and disruptive state from the perception of danger (state of needing to adjust)
      • Eustress: “the spice of life”; type of stress that + your ability to function. Positive short term stress, helps you get stuff done, beneficial
      • Distress “kiss of death”; a state in which your ability to function is compromised
    • Event itself
      • Major event (new job, death, marriage)
      • Daily hassle (minor, common occurrence
        • Accumulcation can be very stressful
          • Can be more stressful than major event
      • Conflict
        • Approach-approach
          • 2 opinions, like both
        • Avoidance-avoidance
          • 2 options, you dont like either one
        • Approach-avoidance
          • 2 options, like 1 don't like 1

Situations w positives and neg

Stress- Hans Selye & General Adaptation Syndrome

  • Walter Cannon’s fight-or-flight
    • Quick, immediate response to stressor
    • (tend & befriend)
      • Stressor → seek support from others
      • Females more likely to respond this way
      • Males protectors → fight or flight
      • Females nurture → seek support
  • Selye’s theory
    • Alarm
      • Fight of flight (is just the first stage)
    • Resistance
      • Continue coping
    • Exhaustion
      • Energy depleted

Responses to Stress

  • Coordinate physical, cognitive, and behavioral
  • Activation of SNS
  • Hypothalamus activates endocrine system
  • Use energy to flee or fight

Stress & the Amygdala

  • Helps with determining threat
  • Thalamus >>> amygdala (emotion of fear)
  • Thalamus >>> cortex (determine cause of fear) (C→C)

Stress, SAM, & HPA

  • Sympathetic adrenal-medullary
    • Hypothalamus >> SNS >> adrenal (adrenaline & norepinephrine)
    • Immediate response, short-lived
    • Fight or flight response
  • Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
    • Amygdala >> hypothalamus (corticotrophin-releasing hormone & vasopressin) >> pituitary (adrenocorticotropic hormone) >> adrenal (cortisol)
    • Slower, last longer (cortisol 3 hours)
    • Hippocampus – inhibit CRH if too high
  • Stress and immune system
    • SAM → immune system is enhanced
    • HPA → immune system is supressed

Stress & Epigenetics

  • Highly attentive rat mothers
    • Sensitive to cortisol levels
      • Respond appropriately; beneficial
    • Lower hormonal and bx response
  • Low attentive rat mothers
    • Low sensitivity to hormone levels
      • Much longer time for those hormone levels to return to normal
      • Not licking, not nurturing

Stress, the Immune System, & Health

  • Stress hormones
    • Suppress activity of lymphocytes
  • B lymphocytes (vaccinations)
    • Release antibodies, programmed to fight specific antigens
  • T lymphocytes
    • Cancer cells and other antigens
  • Type A vs. Type B
    • Type A: competitive, time conscious, productivity, difficulty relaxing
      • Cynical, chronic hostility (i.e, road rage)
      • Greater health problems
    • Type B: laid back, eb n flow
  • Chronic stress
    • Greater suppression of immune system
    • Cortisol
      • Increase blood pressue
      • Increase fat release

Aggression & Violence

  • Types of aggression
    • Premeditated: planning, proactive (youre the one who starts it)
    • Impulsive: hot aggression, reactive (someone else has initiated and we respond)

Genetics, Environment, Epigenetics, & Aggression

  • Genetic link
    • Aggression can be bred
      • “Bull” breeds
    • Heritability of impulsive agression
  • Epigenetics
    • Interaction b/w levels of monoamine (dopamine) oxidase A & child maltreatment
      • Low levels of enzyme & high levels of child maltreatment → antisocial bx
      • Low levels of enzymes & NO child maltreatment → no antisocial bx
  • Environment
    • Breakdown of social institutions (marriage)
      • Culture where divorce is common and not stigmatized
      • Focus on function of partents after divorce (parenting)
    • Community support
      • As communities are getting more crowded, people are keeping to themselves

Brain Structures and Aggression

  • Hypothalamus
    • Stimulation of medial (violent) vs. lateral (hunting)
    • Removal of cerbral cortices
      • Inhibit hypothalamus → “sham rage” (violent, uncontrolled, undirected rage)
  • Amygdala
  • Anterior cingulate cortex
    • Inhibit aggressive bx
    • Lesion→ can not inhibit
  • Orbitofrontal cortex
    • Inhibit aggressive bx
    • Lesion→ can not inhibit

Biochemistry & Aggression

  • Alcohol use
    • Alters ability of ACC & OFC to inhibit aggression
    • “Agreesive drunks” know what to watch out for
  • Testosterone
    • Increase reactivity to threats (males & females)
    • Rats (castrated or adminstered)
  • Serotonin
    • Facilitates activity of ACC & OFC
    • Encourage empathy?

Pleasure & Reward (From Chapter 9)

  • Classical Research in Self-Stimulation
    • Olds & Milner (1954)
      • Wire electrode in rat’s brain
        • Can reward self
      • Intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS)
        • Would spend most time rewarding self
    • Routtenberg & Lindy (1965)
      • 2 levers (food or ICSS)
      • Choice of ICSS
        • Would starve self
    • Humans- septal area of brain (reward center)
  • Rewards Pathway
    • Natural stimulation of area
      • Eating, sexual activity
    • Unnatural behaviors
      • Gambling >>> eating
    • Dopamine
      • Amount released
      • Amount of blocking
  • Cortical Processing of Reward
    • Ability to delay gratification
      • Distant vs. immediate
      • Much more successful if can delay
    • Implication of anterior cingulate cortex
      • Cost-benefit decisions (assign value)
    • Orbitofrontal cortex
      • Damage leads to poor decisions
      • Linked to antisocial personality disorder (not thinking about consequences)
    • Prefrontal cortex
      • Reduces impulses