Shea, The Language of Composition, 3E, Chapter 1

rhetoric

Aristotle defined this as "the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion." In other words, it is the art of finding ways of persuading an audience.

audience

The listener, viewer, or reader of a text. Most texts are likely to have multiple of these.

text

Any cultural product that can be "read" — meaning not just consumed and comprehended, but investigated. This includes all genres of writing, images, fashion, cultural trends, and much more.

propaganda

The spread of ideas and information to further a cause. In its negative sense, this is the use of rumors, lies, disinformation, and scare tactics in order to damage or promote a cause.

context

The circumstances, atmosphere, attitudes, and events surrounding a text.

occasion

The time and place a speech is given or a piece is written.

purpose

The goal the speaker wants to achieve.

rhetorical triangle (Aristotelian triangle)

A diagram that illustrates the interrelationship among the speaker, audience, and subject in determining a text.

speaker

The creator of a text, such as a politician who delivers a speech, a critic who writes an article, an artist who draws a political cartoon, or even a company that commissions an advertisement.

persona

Greek for "mask." The face or character that a speaker shows to his or her audience.

subject

The topic of a text. What the text is about.

rhetorical appeals

Techniques used to persuade an audience by emphasizing what they find most important or compelling. The three major techniques are to ethos, logos, and pathos.

ethos

Greek for "character." Speakers appeal to this to demonstrate that they are credible and trustworthy to speak on a given topic. This is established by both who you are and what you say.

logos

Greek for "embodied thought." Speakers appeal to this, or reason, by offering clear, rational ideas and using specific details, examples, facts, statistics, or expert testimony to back them up.

counterargument

An opposing claim to the one a writer is putting forward. Rather than ignoring this, a strong writer will usually address it through the process of concession and refutation.

concession

An acknowledgment that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable. In a strong argument, this is usually accompanied by a refutation challenging the validity of the opposing argument.

refutation

A denial of the validity of an opposing argument. It often follows a concession that acknowledges an opposing argument may be true or reasonable. One of the stages in classical oration.

pathos

Greek for "suffering" or "experience." Speakers appeal to this to emotionally motivate audiences. Appeals to this might play on the audience's values, desires, hopes, fears, and prejudices.

polemic

Greek for "hostile." An aggressive argument that tries to establish the superiority of one opinion over all others. These generally do not concede that opposing opinions have any merit.

connotation

Meanings or associations that readers have with a word beyond its dictionary definition, or denotation. These are often positive or negative, and often greatly affect the author's tone.

satire

The use of irony or sarcasm to critique society or an individual.

irony

A figure of speech that occurs when a speaker or character says one thing but means something else, or when what is said is the opposite of what is expected, creating a noticeable incongruity.

SOAPS

A mnemonic device that is a handy way to remember the various elements that make up the rhetorical situation.

wit

In rhetoric, the use of laughter, humor, irony, and satire in the confirmation or refutation of an argument.