Bio 2101 Final Exam Review - Flashcards

Flashcards covering basic terminology, body organization, chemistry of life, tissues, integumentary system, skeletal system, muscular system, and nervous system topics from Bio 2101 Chapters 1-14 for exam review.

Cytology

The study of cells.

Histology

The study of tissues.

Body Organization

Classification from simple to complex: chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism.

Homeostasis

The maintenance of stable internal conditions in a changing external environment.

Anterior (Ventral)

Towards the front of the body.

Posterior (Dorsal)

Towards the back of the body.

Superior (Cranial/Cephalic)

Towards the head or upper part of a structure.

Inferior (Caudal)

Away from the head or towards the lower part of a structure.

Medial

Towards the midline of the body.

Lateral

Away from the midline of the body.

Proximal

Closer to the point of attachment or origin.

Distal

Farther from the point of attachment or origin.

Superficial

Towards or at the body surface.

Deep

Away from the body surface; more internal.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

The genetic material that codes for protein synthesis and cell replication.

Protein Synthesis

The process by which cells build proteins using information from DNA.

Cell Replication

The process by which cells divide to produce new cells.

Epithelial Tissue

Tissue that covers body surfaces, lines cavities, and forms glands.

Connective Tissue

Tissue that supports, protects, and binds other tissues together.

Muscle Tissue

Tissue specialized for contraction, producing movement.

Nervous Tissue

Tissue specialized for transmitting electrical signals throughout the body.

Basement Membrane

A thin, nonliving layer that anchors epithelial tissue to underlying connective tissue.

Lamina Propria

The connective tissue component of mucous membranes, found deep to epithelium.

Epidermis

The outermost layer of the skin, composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.

Dermis

The layer of skin deep to the epidermis, composed of connective tissue, nerves, and blood vessels.

Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Layer)

The layer of loose connective tissue and adipose tissue deep to the dermis, not considered part of the skin.

Integumentary System

The skin and its accessory structures (hair, nails, glands), providing protection, regulation of body temperature, and sensation.

Skeletal System

The body system comprising bones, cartilage, and ligaments, providing support, protection, movement, mineral storage, and blood cell formation.

Long Bones

Bones that are longer than they are wide, e.g., femur, humerus.

Short Bones

Bones that are roughly cube-shaped, e.g., carpals, tarsals.

Flat Bones

Thin, flattened, and often curved bones, e.g., sternum, skull bones.

Irregular Bones

Bones with complex shapes that don't fit into other categories, e.g., vertebrae, hip bones.

Sesamoid Bones

Small, independent bones developed in a tendon where it passes over an angular structure, e.g., patella.

Trochanter

A large, rough projection on a bone, specifically found on the femur.

Foramen

A rounded passageway or opening through a bone for blood vessels or nerves.

Osteoblast

A cell that forms new bone tissue.

Osteoclast

A large cell that reabsorbs or breaks down bone matrix.

Osteocyte

A mature bone cell, formed when an osteoblast becomes embedded in the bone matrix.

Osteon

The basic structural unit of compact bone, also known as a Haversian system.

Hydroxyapatite

The inorganic mineral component of bone, primarily calcium phosphate, providing hardness.

Axial Skeleton

The bones that form the longitudinal axis of the body, including the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage.

Appendicular Skeleton

The bones of the limbs and their girdles that attach them to the axial skeleton.

Joints (Articulations)

Where two or more bones meet.

Synarthrosis

An immovable joint.

Amphiarthrosis

A slightly movable joint.

Diarthrosis (Synovial Joint)

A freely movable joint.

Muscular System

The body system responsible for movement, posture, heat production, and stabilizing joints.

Epimysium

The connective tissue sheath surrounding an entire muscle.

Perimysium

The connective tissue sheath surrounding a bundle of muscle fibers (fascicle).

Endomysium

The delicate connective tissue sheath surrounding individual muscle fibers.

Sarcomere

The basic contractile unit of a skeletal muscle fiber, extending from Z-disc to Z-disc.

Sliding Filament Theory

The mechanism of muscle contraction where actin (thin) filaments slide past myosin (thick) filaments, shortening the sarcomere.

Parallel Fascicle Arrangement

Muscle fascicles run parallel to the long axis of the muscle, e.g., biceps brachii.

Convergent Fascicle Arrangement

Muscle fascicles converge from a broad origin to a single tendon, e.g., pectoralis major.

Pennate Fascicle Arrangement

Muscle fascicles attach obliquely to a central tendon, resembling a feather, e.g., deltoid (multipennate).

Circular Fascicle Arrangement

Muscle fascicles are arranged in concentric rings, forming a sphincter, e.g., orbicularis oris.

First-Class Lever

A lever where the fulcrum is between the force and the load, e.g., head nodding on the neck.

Second-Class Lever

A lever where the load is between the fulcrum and the force, e.g., standing on tiptoes.

Third-Class Lever

A lever where the force is between the fulcrum and the load; most common in the body, e.g., bicep curl.

Fulcrum

The fixed point around which a lever moves.

Load (Resistance)

The object being moved by a lever.

Force (Effort)

The muscular contraction applied to a lever to cause movement.

Origin (Muscle)

The attachment of a muscle that remains relatively fixed or stable during contraction.

Insertion (Muscle)

The attachment of a muscle that moves during contraction.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Consists of the brain and spinal cord, acting as the integration and command center.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Consists of nerves extending from the brain and spinal cord, linking the CNS to the rest of the body.

Afferent (Sensory) Division

Carries sensory information from receptors towards the CNS.

Efferent (Motor) Division

Carries motor commands from the CNS to muscles and glands.

Neuron

A nerve cell, specialized for transmitting electrical signals.

Neuroglia (Glial Cells)

Support cells of the nervous system that nourish, protect, and insulate neurons.

Unipolar Neuron

A neuron with a single process extending from the cell body, typically sensory neurons.

Anaxonic Neuron

A neuron lacking an axon, found in the brain and retina, functions are poorly understood but some are interneurons.

Nissl Bodies

Rough endoplasmic reticulum and free ribosomes in the cytoplasm of neurons, responsible for protein synthesis.

Gray Matter

Regions of the CNS containing neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons, appearing gray due to lack of myelin.

White Matter

Regions of the CNS composed primarily of myelinated axons, appearing white due to lipid content of myelin sheaths.

Meninges

Three connective tissue membranes (dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater) that surround and protect the brain and spinal cord.

Dura Mater

The tough, outermost layer of the meninges.

Arachnoid Mater

The middle layer of the meninges, web-like in appearance.

Pia Mater

The delicate, innermost layer of the meninges, adheres directly to the brain and spinal cord.

Somatic

Relating to the body walls and limbs; voluntary control over skeletal muscles.

Visceral

Relating to the internal organs or viscera; involuntary control.

Cranial Nerves

Twelve pairs of nerves that emerge directly from the brain, serving primarily the head and neck region.