Language Change Chapter

Halliday's functional theory

A theory that proposed that language changes and adapts to the needs of it's users. This theory suggests that there's a certain logic to language change: Changes reflect the social, economic and cultural climate we're living in.

Halliday's Functional Theory Example

Advances in music technology meant language also changed: Vinyl (1948), cassette tape (1963), floppy disk (1972), CD (1982), MP3 (1992), streaming (2002)

Halliday's Functional Theory Critique

Explains only lexical changes.

Cultural Transmission Theory

A theory that refers to the process of learning new information, including language, through socialization and engagement with those around you. Language change occurs when individuals and/or groups perceive there is a benefit in such change

Cultural Transmission Theory Example

Change of accent, register or lexis when interviewing for a "better" job.

Cultural Transmission theory Critique

Doesn't account for all leaning (trial and error) nor variety of language which is possible to produce

Hockett's 1958 Random Fluctuation Theory

A theory that proposes that random mistakes and events lead to language change. Random events, such as the coronavirus pandemic, may also affect our language. Also where people pronounce words in a particular style, which spreads and becomes seen as the desirable form of discourse.

Hockett's Random Fluctuation Theory Example

The misspelling of "owned" as "pwned" has become a common term in the online gaming community meaning a rival has been humiliated.

Hockett's Random Fluctuation Theory Critique

Would lead to linguistic chaos; too general for close analysis. Only focuses on lexical changes.

Substratum Theory

A theory that states that the English language changes through contact with other languages. In the past, this was mainly through trade and invasion, but this theory specifically suggests that these changes in English may happen nowadays through globalization, social networking, and/or immigration

Substratum Theory Example

The effect of Yiddish speakers hypercorrect pronunciation of /caw-fee/ on the distinctive NY accent of today.

Substratum Theory Critique

Accounts for some changes but can't be sole reason for all changes that have occurred.

Theory of Lexical Gaps

Theory that argues that a word will be invented, converted or borrowed in order to fill a gap in usage as well as a phonological gap in our language

Theory of lexical gaps example

The adoption of the term "blog" in the early 2000s when people started writing online diaries.

Theory of Lexical Gaps Critique

only accounts for lexical and phonological changes

A "Lexical Gap"

A linguistically possible, but non-existing word in a language made possible because it does not violate the specific rules of the language in which the word is considered an accidental gap and non-existing because the word has never been in common use of that language.

Bailey's 1973 Wave model

A model that argues that language evolves from one disturbance or change, just like ripples in the water. It also proposes that geographical distance has an impact on language change spread - change weakens the further from the "epicenter" you are.

Bailey's Wave Model Example

Words adopted by multicultural youths in London are less likely to be taken up by white middle class speakers in Edinburgh, Scotland.

Bailey's Wave Model Critique

Assumes a steady change in language will occur over time, but digital communications have sped it up.

Chen's 1968-1972 S-Curve Model

A model that explains that users pick up a language change at a gradual rate before it accelerates and spreads into wider usage before slowing down again and stabilizing. Old and new terms may coexsist until old forms are eventually lost.

Chen's S-Curve Model Example

The adoption of "selfie," which saw slow uptake, rapid adoption, and then became standard.

Chen's S-Curve Model Critique

model is more geared towards the linguistic community.

Aitchison's PDIC (Potential, Diffusion, Implementation and Codification Model)

Potential - a need for a word arises

Implementation - word begins to be used (by individual at first)

Diffusion - word spreads through the population (groups, media, internet)

Codification model - words is recorded in dictionary (standard, online, urban) and accepted.

PIDC model Example

The word "Troll" being used as someone who make intentionally offensive posts online to gain a reaction on the internet.

Lexis

Refers to the Vocabulary system of a language

Example: The vocabulary of medical professionals includes terms like "cardiovascular" and "neurology."

Orthography

The conventional spelling system of a language

Example: The shift from "olde" to "old" in English over centuries

Semantics

the study of meaning in a language

Example: The word "cool" changing from meaning "cold" to "fashionable."

Phonology

the study of sound systems and patterns in a language

Example: The vowel shift that occurred in the Great Vowel Shift in English.

Grammar

the set of rules governing sentence structure and word usage

Example: the simplification of English verb conjugations.

Pragmatics

The study of how context influences language use.

Example: The shift in the use of "please" from formal requests to more casual interactions.

Morphology

he study of word formation and structure.

Example: The addition of "-ness" to form nouns like "happiness."

Graphology

The visual aspects of language, including text layout and font.

Example: The stylistic use of fonts in modern advertisements to convey tone.

Amelioration

Shift to a more positive meaning (e.g., "knight" once meant servant, now a person of noble status).

Archaic/Archaism

Old words no longer in common use (e.g., "thou" for "you").

Backformation

Creation of a new word by removing a perceived suffix (e.g., "edit" from "editor").

Blending

Combining parts of words (e.g., "brunch" from "breakfast" and "lunch").

Borrowing

Taking words from other languages (e.g., "ballet" from French)

Broadening

Expanding a word's meaning (e.g., "holiday" originally meant religious day).

Coalescense

Merging sounds into one (e.g., "whale" from "hwael").

Coinage

Creation of new words (e.g., "google").

Compounding

Combining words (e.g., "laptop").

Deriviation

Forming new words using prefixes/suffixes (e.g., "unhappy")

Eponym

Word derived from a name (e.g., "sandwich" from the Earl of Sandwich).

Etymology

The study of word origins

Narrowing

Word meaning becomes more specific (e.g., "meat" once meant any food).

Neologism

Newly coined word (e.g., "cyberspace").

Pejoration

Shift to a more negative meaning (e.g., "silly" once meant happy)

Prefix

Added to the beginning of a word (e.g., "re-" in "replay")

Reduplication

Repeating parts of a word (e.g., "zig-zag").

Root/Stem

Base of a word (e.g., "act" in "action").

Suffix

Added to the end of a word (e.g., "-able" in "readable")

Telescoping (Clipping)

Shortening words (e.g., "gym" from "gymnasium")

Concordance

Agreement between words (e.g., subject-verb agreement)

Collocation

Words often found together (e.g., "fast food").

Computer-mediated discourse

Communication via digital means (e.g., online forums).

Conversion

Change of word class (e.g., "email" as a verb)

Corpus Linguistics

Study of language through large text collections.

Descriptivism

Non-judgmental approach to language use.

Prescriptivism

Imposing rules on language use.

Protolanguage

Hypothetical common ancestor of languages.

Synchronic Variation

Study of language at a specific time

Diachronic Variation

Study of language across time

Word sketch

Summary of a word's use.

Locution

A specific expression or speech act.