PHIL 120 Midterm

Philosophy Translation

Love of wisdom.

Theoretical Philosophy

Asks fundamental questions about how the world IS; facts.

Practical Philosophy

Asks fundamental questions about how the world OUGHT to be; values.

The following questions are an example of what?

- Does God exist?

- Do humans have free will?

- How far does human knowledge extend?

- What is the purpose of law?

- Do humans have immaterial souls?

Theoretical Philosophy

The following questions are an example of what?

- What virtues should I develop to thrive?

- How should I treat strangers? Do I have obligations to them?

- What are the main values that should inform our social institutions? - Do we have obligations to respect all life?

- What should I do when morality and self-interest conflict?

Practical Philosophy

Theoretical Wisdom

What people have when they are especially strong in theoretical matters

Practical Wisdom

What people have when they are especially strong in practical matters

Reason

Logical arguments supported by facts used to prove philosophical questions.

True or False - Philosophy only asks the big, universal questions about the world.

False

True or False - Philosophy is bound by the rules of reality.

True

True or False - You can do philosophy well and poor.

True

Definition of Philosophy (LEARN WORD FOR WORD)

Philosophy is the discipline of rational inquiry into the truth of, reasons for, and meaning of our fundamental beliefs (those that cannot be determined by empirical science), undertaken in order to gain theoretical and practical wisdom.

What are the primary branches of Theoretical Philosophy?

Metaphysics

Epistemology

Logic

What are the primary branches of Practical Philosophy?

Normative Ethics

Normative Social-Political Philosophy

Metaphysics

Studies the ultimate nature or feature of reality.

Epistemology

Studies the nature of knowledge and the justification of knowledge claims.

Logic

Studies the nature of reasoning.

Normative Ethics

Studies how one ought to live.

Normative Social-Political Philosophy

Studies how societies ought to be organized.

The following questions are an example of what primary branch?

- What is existence?

- Is all reality ultimately one united substance, or is it divided up into different kinds of substances?

- Does God exist?

- Does everything happen for a reason?

Metaphysics

The following questions are an example of what primary branch?

- What is knowledge?

- What is the difference between true knowledge and mere opinion?

- Is knowledge ultimately based in sense-experience?

- How do we justify claims to know things?

Epistemology

The following questions are an example of what primary branch?

- What are the rules of correct reasoning?

- What are common fallacies (errors in reasoning)?

- What are the different kinds of reasoning?

Logic

The following questions are an example of what primary branch?

- How should humans live if they wish to flourish?

- What are our moral obligations to others?

- Are all persons equally owed respect in virtue of their simple humanity?

Normative Ethics

The following questions are an example of what primary branch?

- What form of government ought to be established to have flourishing societies?

- What values should inform our social institutions?

- To what degree should governments have control over individuals’ lives?

Normative Social-Political Philosophy

What secondary branch studies the nature of art and beauty?

Aesthetics

What secondary branch studies the nature of science and the scientific method?

Philosophy of Science

What secondary branch studies the nature of language and communication?

Philosophy of Language

What secondary branch studies the nature and legitimacy of law?

Philosophy of Law

What secondary branch studies the nature and legitimacy of religion, religious language, and religious claims?

Philosophy of Religion

What secondary branch studies the nature of mathematics and numbers?

Philosophy of Mathematics

What secondary branch studies the nature of the mind?

Philosophy of Mind

What secondary branch studies how moral problems in bioethical practice should be resolved?

Bioethics

What secondary branch studies how moral problems in business practice should be resolved?

Business Ethics

What secondary branch studies the nature and normative significance of race, class, and gender?

Philosophy of Race, Class, and Gender

What secondary branch studies the nature of technology and its legitimate uses?

Philosophy of Technology

What secondary branch studies questions about the nature of ethics whose answers are not action-guiding?

Metaethics

What secondary branch studies the nature and purposes of education?

Philosophy of Education

What secondary branch studies constellations of views group together from a variety of different branches?

EX: Feminism, Existentialism

Philosophical Movements

What secondary branch studies the “long conversation” of philosophy over time and people’s major contributions?

History of Philosophy

The following comparison is an example of what?

Both try to understand the world using reason. They are not competitors, but rather work at different levels and ask different questions.

Philosophy and Science Major Similarity

The following comparison is an example of what?

Science does not have the tools to answer questions about practical issues, and is ALL theoretical. Philosophy, however, can ask about the good/bad, right/wrong, ought/ought not.

Philosophy and Science Major Dissimilarity

The following comparison is an example of what?

Both ask fundamental theoretical AND practical questions.

Philosophy and Religion Major Similarity

The following comparison is an example of what?

Philosophy is committed to questioning everything using reason, while religion incorporates a faith component (belief without evidence).

Philosophy and Religion Major Dissimilarity

What is it called when people study philosophy because they think it helps them live a better life, even if it gives no money?

Intrinsic Value Reasons

What is it called when people study philosophy because it helps them get a job and earn money?

Practical Value Reasons

Rational Persuasion Attempt

Persuasion attempt that USES an argument

Non-Rational Persuasion Attempt

Persuasion attempt that DOES NOT USE an argument

True or False - A Non-Rational Persuasion Attempt can be psychologically effective but not rationally.

True

Critical Thinking

Thinking that critiques. A reasoning evaluation.

Reasoning

The thinking used in arriving at decisions, developing plans, coming to conclusions, offering hypothesis, coming up with solutions, etc. (DIFFERENT FROM REASON)

Argument

Presents a consideration for accepting a claim.

EX: “I should get a dog because it will keep me company.”

Premise

The part of an argument that provides the reason why/why not. Gives reason for a position.

Conclusion

The part of an argument that states what the premise supports or demonstrates. States the position.

True or False - Not every issue requires an argument for resolution.

True

Cognitive Biases

Unconscious features that skew our apprehension of reality and interfere with our ability to think clearly, process info accurately, and reason objectively.

Belief Bias

The tendency to evaluate reasoning by the believability of its conclusion.

Truth

A claim is true if it is free from error.

Knowledge

If you believe something, have an argument beyond a reasonable doubt that it is so, and have no reason to think you are mistaken, you can claim you know it.

True or False - We think critically when we evaluate the reasoning we and others use in coming to conclusions (all people can do).

True

True or False - Critical thinking CAN’T by waylaid by emotion, self-interest, wishful thinking, desire to be accepted, confirmation bias, etc.

False

The 1st Core Rule for Critical Thinkers

Because you are not all-knowing, it is inevitable that some of the beliefs and viewpoints you firmly hold are completely wrong. Therefore, beware of intellectual arrogance.

The 2nd Core Rule for Critical Thinkers

Until you understand the viewpoints of those who disagree with you, you do not understand your own viewpoint very well.

The 3rd Core Rule for Critical Thinkers

Until you can summarize another viewpoint so well that those who hold it agree with your summary, you do not understand that viewpoint.

The 4th Core Rule for Critical Thinkers

If you wish to be considered a critical thinker, you must be willing to seriously consider alternatives and to change your mind.

The 5th Core Rule for Critical Thinkers

Always assume that those with whom you disagree are as intelligent as you and have motives that are as noble as you do.

The 6th Core Rule for Critical Thinkers (Piper’s Rule)

The only people who deserve to be called truly critical thinkers are those who are both WILLING and ABLE to say (and mean) the following:

• “You make a good point”

• “I hadn’t considered that”

• “I might have to reconsider”

• “You have persuaded me to change my mind”

Premise-Conclusion Form

A tool used to help us clarify arguments.

Formatted as:

P1. ~~~~

P2. ~~~~

P3. ~~~~

C. ~~~~

True or False - The following has the correct formatting of Premise-Conclusion Form.

P1. I haven’t eaten yet.

P2. I’m hungry.

C. Therefore, I should eat.

False

True or False - The following has the correct formatting of Premise-Conclusion Form.

P1. I haven’t slept at all recently.

P2. I’m yawning a lot.

C. Therefore, I should sleep.

True

The following are examples of what?

Clarity

Helps evaluation of the argument

Is VERY helpful in determining what KIND of argument you have

Reasons why the Premise-Conclusion Form is helpful

What is the first basic sign of a good argument?

True (or probably true) premises.

What is the second basic sign of a good argument?

Premises that are RELEVANT to the truth of the conclusion.

Bangwagon Effect

Unconscious tendency to align one’s thinking with that of the majority of people around one. “Peer pressure”

In-Group Bias

Unconscious tendency to think the groups one is part of has more desirable qualities than competing groups. Blind favoritism.

True or False - A good example of In-Group Bias would be Nationalism during war.

True

True or False - In-Group Bias can occur when you are consciously considering the qualities of a different group.

False

Better-Than-Average Bias

Unconscious tendency to rate oneself as above average (not the best) in relation to most any desirable trait. Blind self-favoritism.

Obedience to Authority Bias

The unconscious tendency to

1. Assume that authorities have good reasons behind the orders

2. Comply with those orders

Premise Indicators

Often (NOT ALWAYS) occur just after a conclusion has been given.

Examples include because…, since…, for…, in view of…, and this is implied by…

Conclusion Indicators

Often signifies that the conclusion is about to be presented.

Examples include thus, hence, consequently, therefore, so, accordingly, this implies that, this proves that, this shows that, and this suggests that.

True or False - The premise is the takeaway, not the conclusion.

False

Deductive Argument

Argument that attempts to establish a conclusion with certainty.

True or False - Deductive arguments IN GENERAL are used when more is on the line.

True

Inductive Argument

Argument that attempt to establish a conclusion as LIKELY or PROBABLE.

True or False - Deductive arguments can be likely or probable.

False

Valid Deductive Arguments

An argument in which, if we ASSUME the premises are true, then the conclusion MUST be true.

True or False - The steps for deducing the type of argument are as follows:

1. Put in premise-conclusion form.

2. Assume premises are true.

3. Ask if conclusion MUST be true or not.

True

True or False - You NEED to know the facts to determine if an argument is valid.

False

True or False - If the premises of an argument are true, the conclusion MUST be true to be valid deductive.

True

True or False - Below is a correct example of a valid deductive argument.

P1. Matthew is 5’6”.

P2. Grace is 5’9”.

C. Therefore, Grace is taller than Matthew.

True

True or False - Below is a correct example of a valid deductive argument.

The butler is in the clear, as he couldn’t have locked the door and the door was locked.

True

True or False - Below is a correct example of a valid deductive argument.

Miss Scarlet’s fingerprints were on the knife used to kill Colonel Mustard. Furthermore, he was killed in the pantry, and she was the only person who had a key to the pantry. Therefore, she killed the colonel.

False

True or False - Valid deductive arguments can have some wiggle-room for other possibilities.

False

Sound Argument

A valid deductive argument where premises are in fact true in the real world.

True or False - Sound arguments are the strongest arguments in existence.

True

True or False - Below is an example of a sound argument.

P1. Matthew is from Virginia.

P2. Virginia borders Washington D.C.

C. Matthew lives in a state that borders the country’s capital.

True

True or False - You should go with your gut reaction rather than procedure when deciding argument type.

False

True or False - The conclusion can’t be false for inductive arguments.

False

True or False - If the premises for inductive arguments are true, it makes the conclusion more likely.

True

True or False - Below is an example of an inductive argument.

P1. The salad I had at Clem’s tasted old.

C. Clem’s is the worst restaurant in Harrisonburg.

True