AP Psych - Unit 0

Psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

Biopsychosocial Model

denoting a systematic integration of biological, psychosocial, and social approaches to the study of mental health and specific mental disorders

Evolutionary (Darwinian) Perspective

focuses on evolutionary adaptations that help explain human thought and behavior

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Perspective

focuses on unconscious, internal drives, childhood experiences

Behaviorism/Behavioral Perspective

observable (and measurable) behavior; stimulus and response learning

Humanistic Perspective

focuses on nurturing, growth potential, love, and acceptance

Cognitive Perspective

studies how thinking and perception influence behavior (internal functions driving behavior)

Social-cultural Perspective

emphasizes the impact of people’s culture, religion, ethnicity, gender, and income level on human behavior

Basic Research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

Applied Research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

Basic Research: Biopsychologist

study the biological basis of behavior, thoughts, and emotions and the reciprocal relations between biological and psychological processes

Basic Research: Developmental Psychologists

study the changes—physical, mental, and behavioral—that occur from conception to old age and investigates the various biological, neurobiological, genetic, psychological, social, cultural, and environmental factors that affect development throughout the lifespan

Basic Research: Cognitive Psychologists

study the operation of mental processes related to perceiving, attending, thinking, language, and memory, mainly through inferences from behavior

Applied Research: Industrial/Organizational Psychologists

conduct empirical research aimed at understanding individual and group behavior within organizations and use their findings to improve organizational effectiveness and the welfare of employees

Applied Research: Clinical Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

Applied: Health and Positive Psychologist

positive psychology is a branch of psychology focused on the character strengths and behaviors that allow individuals to build a life of meaning and purpose—to move beyond surviving to flourishing

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

Scientific Method

a set of procedures, guidelines, assumptions, and attitudes required for the organized and systematic collection, interpretation, and verification of data enabling laws and principles to be stated or modified

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Operational Definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Case Study Method

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Survey Method

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

Naturalistic Observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

False Consensus Effect

the tendency to assume that one’s own opinions, beliefs, attributes, or behaviors are more widely shared than is actually the case

Population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

Sample

a subset of a population of interest that is selected for study with the aim of making inferences to the population

Random Sample/Selection

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Random Assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different group

Representative Sample

the selection of study units (e.g. participants, homes, schools) from a larger group (population) in an unbiased way, such that the sample obtained accurately reflects the total population

Stratified Sample

the process of selecting a sample from a population comprised of various subgroups (strata) in such a way that each subgroup is represented

Quantitative Research

a method of research that relies on measuring variables using a numerical system, analyzing these measurements using any of a variety of statistical models, and reporting relationships and associations among the studied variables

Qualitative Research

a method of research that produces descriptive (non-numerical) data, such as observations of behavior or personal accounts of experiences

Ethical Flaws

arise when there is a conflict between the rights of the participants in a research study and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid, and worthwhile data

Sampling Bias

arise when there is a conflict between the rights of the participants in a research study and the goals of research to produce

Correlational Research

a type of study in which relationships between variables are simply observed without any control over the setting in which those relationships occur or any manipulation by the researcher

Correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

Correlation: Positive

a relationship between two variables in which both rise and fall together

Correlation: Negative

a relationship between two variables in which the value of one variable increases as the value of the other decreases

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1.00 to +1.00)

Regression toward the mean

the tendency for extremely high or extremely low scores to become more moderate (i.e., closer to the mean) upon retesting over time

Illusionary Correlation

the appearance of a relationship that, in reality, does not exist

Experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)

Experiment: Laboratory

scientific study conducted in a laboratory or other such workplace, where the investigator has some degree of direct control over the environment and can manipulate the independent variables

Experiment: Field

studies conducted outside the laboratory, in a “real-world” setting, which typically involve observing or interacting with participants in their typical environments over an extended period of time

Placebo

a pharmacologically inert substance, such as a sugar pill, that is often administered as a control in testing new drugs

Placebo Condition

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

Placebo Group

a group of participants in a study who receive an inert substance (placebo) instead of the active drug under investigation, thus functioning as a control group against which to make comparisons regarding the effects of the active drug

Third Variable Problem

the fact than an observed correlation between two variables may be due to the common correlation between each of the variables and a third variable rather than any underlying relationship (in a casual sense) of the two variables with each other

Single-Blind Procedure

a type of study in which one of the groups (participants) are unaware as to which group they are in (experiment or control group) while the researcher who developed the experiment knows which participants are in each group

Double Blind Procedure

a type of study in which neither the participants nor the experiments know who is receiving a particular treatment

Experimenter Bias

any systematic errors in the research process or the interpretation of its results that are attributable to a researcher’s behavior, preconceived beliefs, expectancies, or desires about results

Response/Participant Bias

the tendency for a study participant to give one answer or type of answer more than others, regardless of the stimulus condition

Social Desirability (bias)

the bias or tendency of individuals to present themselves in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others

Demand Characteristics

in an experiment or research project, cues that may influence or bias participants’ behavior

Confirmation Bias

the tendency to gather evidence that confirms preexisting expectations, typically by emphasizing or pursuing supporting evidence while dismissing or failing to seek contradictory evidence

Experimental Group

a group of participants in a research study who are exposed to a particular manipulation of the independent variable (i.e., a particular treatment or treatment level)

Control Group

a comparison group in a study whose members receive either no intervention at all or some established intervention

Experimental Design

an outline or plan of the procedures to be followed in scientific experimentation in order to reach valid conclusions, with consideration of such factors as participant selection, variable manipulation, data collection and analysis, and minimization of external influences

Independent Variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

Dependent Variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

Confounding Variable

in an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect

Control Variables

a variable that is considered to have an effect on the response measure in a study but that itself is not of particular interest to the research

Descriptive Statistics

procedures for depicting the main aspects of sample data, without necessarily inferring to a larger population

Inferential Statistics

a broad class of statistical techniques that allow inferences about characteristics of a population to be drawn from a sample of data from that population while controlling (at least partially) the extent to which errors of inference may be made

Sampling Error

the predictable margin of error that occurs in studies of samples, of cases, or observations from a larger population

Validity

the extent to which the instruments that are used in the experiment measure exactly what you want them to measure

Reliability

the extent to which the outcomes are consistent when the experiment is repeated more than once

Generalizability

the extent to which results or findings obtained from a sample are applicable to a broader population

Positive Skewed Distributions

when a distribution has a few extreme scores toward the high end relative to the low end, such that the mean is greater than the mode

Negative Skewed Distribution

when a distribution has a few extreme scores toward the low end relative to the high end

Measure of Central Tendency: Mode

the most frequently occurring score in a set of data

Measure of Central Tendency: Mean

the numerical average of a set of scores, computed as the sum of all scores divided by the number of scores