Introduction to Psychology - Unit 6 to 11

Introduction to Psychology - Unit 6 to 11 Reviewer

Learning

Learning

A complex process that brings about an enduring change in behavior as a result of practice.

1. Habituation

2. Associative Learning

3. Social Learning

4. Skill Learning

5. Verbal Learning

6. Cognitive Learning

Kinds of Learning

Habituation

The simplest kind of learning.

Associative Learning

Forming new associations between a stimulus and a response.

Classical Conditioning

Involves the transfer of response from one stimulus to another through repeated pairings.

Ivan Pavlov

He discovered Classical conditioning.

1. Acquisition

2. Reinfircement

3. Extinction

4. Spotaneous Recovery

5. Generalization

6. Discrimination

7. Higher-Order Conditioning

Parameters of Classical Conditioning

Acquisition

The phase of classical conditioning where the stimulus association is learned.

Reinforcement

An event that enhances or maintains the strength of a response.

Extinction

A decrease in the strength of a conditioned response due to repeated absence of reinforcement.

Spontaneous Recovery

Partial recovery in the strength of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest interval.

Generalization

The tendency of a similar stimulus to elicit the conditioned response.

Discrimination

Opposite of generalization. The process of responding to differences between stimuli.

Higher-order Conditioning

Helps individuals become flexible in their responses to the environment.

Operant or Instrumental Conditioning

Learners discover how their behavior affects the environment through reinforcement.

B. F. Skinner

He experimented the Operant or Instrumental Conditioning extensively.

1. Shaping

2. Extinction

3. Stimulus Generalization

4. Discrimination Learning

5. Partial Reinforcement

6. Secondary Reinforcement

Phenomena of Interest in Operant Conditioning

Shaping

A series of responses where each response leads to the next.

Extinction

Progressive weakening of instrumental learning due to the withdrawal of reinforcement.

Stimulus Generalization

Similar stimuli elicit the same response as the one used in training.

Discrimination Learning

Response made in one stimulus is not made possible to others.

Partial Reinforcement

Responses are reinforced only part of the time.

Secondary Reinforcement

Stimulus that has gained reinforcing property by being paired with a primary reinforcer.

Social Learning

It is learning by observing others, also known as vicarious learning or modeling.

Albert Bandura

He is the most prominent social learning theorist who has engaged in many experiments involving learning by observing which otherwise known as vicarious learning or modeling, because a model is being imitated.

1. Attention

2. Retention

3. Motoric Reproduction

4. Reinforcement

Four Steps in the Process of Modeling

Attention

Sensing and perceiving important aspects of behavior to be imitated.

Retention

Remembering behavior through mental images or language.

Motoric Reproduction

Converting recalled observation into action.

Reinforcement

Being encouraged and motivated to adopt the behavior.

Skill Learning

Proficiency and competency in a certain kind of performance.

1. Cognition

2. Fixation

3. Automation

Three Stages in Learning A Skill

Verbal Learning

Involves the use of words as stimuli or response.

1. Serial-anticipation Learning

2. Free Recall Learning

3. Paired-associate Learrning

Kinds of Verbal Learning

Cognitive Learning

A process that we cannot observe. It involves perceiving, recalling, thinking, reasoning, evaluating, and abstracting.

Memory

The extent to which learned information still persists.

1. Recall

2. Recognition

3. Reintegration

4. Relearning

Methods to Measure Memory or Remebering

Recall

Reproducing past learning/experience without any clue.

Recognition

Ability to identify familiar learned items.

Reintegration

Recollection of past learning/experience with cues.

Relearning

Reviewing previous learning.

1. Perception

2. Encoding/acquisition

3. Storage

4. Retrieval

Our Memory Usually Works in Four Basic Steps:

1. Sensory Memory

2. Short-term Memory

3. Long-term Memory

Stages of Memory

1. Episodic

2. Semantic

3. Procedural

Types of Memory

Episodic Memory

Memory for memorable events in one's life.

Semantic Memory

Memory for rules and concepts.

Procedural Memory

Memory for how to do things.

Forgetting

Inability to recall information accurately.

1. Interference Theory

2. Decay Theory

3. Retrieval-based Forgetting

4. Storage-based Forgetting

5. Motivated Forgetting

Thoeries of Forgetting

Interference Theory

Forgetting due to conflict among information learned earlier or later.

Decay Theory

Forgetting due to the lapse of time.

Retrieval-based Forgetting

Cue-dependent forgetting where the memory trace is present but information cannot be brought out.

Storage-based Forgetting

Forgetting due to distortion of learned information in long-term memory.

Motivated Forgetting

Purposeful or voluntary blocking of learned information.

Thinking

Covert behavior and internal process of manipulating ideas or objects that are physically absent to senses

Realistic Thinking

Directed towards problem-solving and decision-making.

1. Realistic Thinking

2. Autistic Thinking

Kinds of Thinking

Autistic Thinking

Engaging in thinking for pleasure, like daydreaming.

Emotion

State involving facial and bodily changes, cognitive appraisals, subjective feelings, and tendencies toward action.

1. James-Lange Theory

2. Cannon-Bard Theory

3. Schachter’s Cognitive Theory

Theories of Emotion

James-Lange Theory

Emotional feelings follow bodily arousal.

Cannon-Bard Theory

Emotional feelings and bodily arousal are both organized by the brain.

Schachter's Cognitive Theory

Emotion occurs when an individual interprets their feelings.

1. Primary Emotions

2. Mixed Emotions

Classification of Emotions

Primary Emotions

Basic emotions that can blend together to form other emotions.

1. Fear

2. Anger

3. Joy

4. Sadness

5. Acceptance

6. Disgust

7. Anticipation

8. Surprise

Robert Plutchik’s 8 Primary/Basic Emotions

Mixed Emotions

Plutchik felt that adjacent emotions can be mixed to yield a third more complex emotion.

1. Awe - fear and surprise

2. Love - joy and acceptance

3. Aggresion - anger and anticipation

4. Submission - acceptance and fear

5. Optimism - anticipation and joy

Mixture of Emotions

1. Emotions are used in order to communicate and influence others

2. Emotions can be utilized to organize and motivate action

3. Emotions can be self-validating

Functions of Emotions

Motivation

It refers to the internal state or condition that activates behavior and gives direction.

Need

are based on some deficit within the person.

Drive

are based on needs and have the added feature of an observable change in behavior.

Motive

refers to a drive that is directed toward or away from the goal

Goals

refers to a substance or object capable of satisfying a need.

1. It energize the person

2. have directing function

3. Have selecting function

Functions of Motives

1. Physiological Motives

2. Psychological Motives

3. Ego-integrative Motives

Classification of Motives

Physiological Motives

these are motives essential for the survival of man for its existence.

Psychological Motives

are motives essential for man to function appropriately as a social being.

Ego-integrative Motives

are motives that enhance the individual’s self-concept.

1. Instinct theory

2. Homeostatic theory

3. Arousal theory

4. Incentive theory

5. Maslow’s Heirarchy of Needs

6. Freudian Concept of Motivation

7. Needs Theory

8. Alderfer’s ERG Theory

9. McClelland’s Needs

10. Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory

11. Expectant Theory

Theories of Motivation

Instinct Theory

The assumption of the theory is that there is an innate biological force causing and organism to act in a certain way. These forces are perceived to be automatic, involuntary and unlearned behavior patterns or reflexive behavior that are elicited when certain stimuli are present.

Homeostatic Theory

organisms attempt to maintain the balance of physiological state or equilibrium by constantly adjusting themselves to the demands of the environment.

Arousal Theory

states that rather than all organisms being motivated to seek to reduce arousal they seek to maintain an optimal level of arousal and this optimal level varies from organism to organism.

Incentive Theory

According to the theory people and animals are likely to be activated because they have the tendency to be pulled toward a specific goal.

Maslow’s Heirarchy of Needs

Maslow made a hypothesis that our needs are prioritized from physiological to biological to social and up to spiritual.

Freudian Concept of Motivation

According to the theory sexual or libidinal and aggressive wishes are the primary motivating forces in human life.

Needs Theory

This is based on the belief that all behaviors are motivated by unsatisfied needs.

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Alderfer categorized the needs for Existence, Relatedness and Growth.

McClelland’s Needs

According to David McClelland the three most important need are achievement, affiliation and power.

Herzberg’s Two-factor Model

- Motivators – are factors that really motivate people

- Hygiene – are dissatisfiers

Expectant Theory

Victor Vroom’s theory explained why individuals choose to follow certain courses of action in organizations.

Personality

Derived from the Latin words "persona" and "personalitas" meaning "mask".

Personalitas

Medieval Latin word meaning “mask”

Traits

Enduring dimensions of personality characteristics along which people differ. They refer to the readiness to think or act in a similar fashion in response to a variety of different stimuli or situations.

State

A temporary alteration of one's personality.

1. Psychoanalytic Theory

2. Trait Theories

3. Type Theory

4. Social Learning Theory/Cognitive Theory

5. Humanistic Theory

6. Psychosocial Theory

Theories of Personality

Psychoanalytic Theory

Describes development as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotions. Emphasizes early experiences with parents.

Sigmund Freud

Father of Psychoanalysis

Unconscious

Constitutes powerful drives that stay totally outside of awareness.

Preconscious

Contains thoughts, perceptions, and memories that have minimal emotional significance and can be brought into consciousness.