Syntax and Linguistics Lecture Notes

Flashcards covering key concepts from the provided lecture notes on syntax, grammar types, morphology, sentence structures, and related linguistic topics.

What is Syntax?

The principles by which words combine to form sentences in a specific order.

What is a common word order in English and Polish?

SVO (Subject, Verb, Object).

What is the study of syntax in relation to linguistics?

A branch of linguistics focused on characterizing human language.

What is Semiotics?

A field that studies the properties of symbolic systems in general.

What is Grammar?

A specification of the possible expressions in a symbolic system, together with a pairing of expressions with meaning.

What is Prescriptive Grammar?

Grammar that prescribes rules and instructions on how language ought to be spoken and written.

What is Descriptive Grammar?

Grammar that describes the use of language without instructions, showing how people actually speak and write.

What is the relation of morphology and syntax in English?

Syntactic relations in English often determine these relations, traditionally called morphological relations.

What is a Paradigmatic Relationship?

Every item of language has a relationship with every other item which can be substituted for it.

What is a Syntagmatic Relationship?

Every item of language has a relationship with items which occur within the same construction.

What are Phonemes?

Minimal distinctive sound units of a language.

What are Transitive Verbs?

Verbs that must be followed by an object.

What are Intransitive Verbs?

Verbs that are not followed by an object.

What do Paradigmatic Substitutions allow on the semantic level?

A semantic set of items that can be grouped together (e.g., synonyms).

What do Syntagmatic Associations indicate?

Compatible combinations of words (e.g., rotten apple).

What is a Simple Sentence?

Contains a subject and a verb, expressing a complete thought; also called an independent clause.

What is a Compound Sentence?

Contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).

What is a Complex Sentence?

One independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses, often using a subordinator.

What are the sentence or clause elements?

Subject, predicate (verb), complement, adverbials, and object.

What is the structure of a basic Noun Phrase (NP)?

A basic noun phrase is composed of determinative + head.

What are examples of Determinatives in a Noun Phrase?

Articles, possessives, demonstratives, relative pronouns, and article-like words.

What are Premodifiers?

Modifiers that occur before the head in a phrase.

What are Postmodifiers?

Modifiers that occur after the head in a phrase, such as prepositional phrases, non-finite clauses, and finite (relative) clauses.

What are Finite Clauses?

Clauses that carry tense, containing finite verb phrases.

What are Non-Finite Clauses?

Clauses that do not carry tense, using to-infinitives, bare infinitives, -ed forms, or -ing forms.

What role does the Verb Phrase (VP) play in syntactic analysis?

Determines the general layout of the clause and requires one or more participants (subject, object, etc.).

What are Verb Classes?

Verbs classified according to their verb patterns, including copulas, transitives, and intransitives.

What is a Copula Verb?

A verb that connects the subject to the complement.

What is Verb Valency?

The number of arguments (including the subject) controlled by a verbal predicate.

What are Tenses in English?

Grammatical forms signalling simultaneously time and aspect.

What is Grammatical Aspect?

A grammatical category that defines the temporal flow (or its lack) in a given action, event, or state.

What is Grammatical Mood?

Verbal inflections that express the speaker's attitude toward what they are saying.

What is Broad (Intentional) Modality?

Reflects the intention of the speaker/writer (declarative, interrogative, imperative).

What is Narrow Modality?

Reflects the speaker's/writer's attitude to conveyed information as to probability, ability, volition, etc.

What is Epistemic Modality?

A sub-type of linguistic modality that deals with a speaker’s evaluation/judgement of knowledge.

What is Deontic Modality?

Linguistic modality that indicates how the world ought to be, according to certain norms or desires.

What are Yes-No Questions?

Questions with rising intonation seeking a yes or no answer.

What are WH- Questions?

Questions with falling intonation using 'wh-' words (why, when, who, etc.).

What are Commands (Directives)?

Utterances expressing commands or directives, which can vary in form and politeness.

What are Exclamations (Exclamatives)?

Utterances expressing strong feelings or emotions.

What is Partial Negation?

Negating only one clause member.

What is the Neutral Character of the English Verb?

The English verb is considered in regard to positive or negative polarity.

What are Clause Types?

Statements, clauses, and word order.

What are Optional Adverbials?

Adverbials that can be optionally included in a sentence.

What is the Word Order of Objects?

Related to objects, Objects, and word order.

What is the correct order of Adverbials in a sentence?

Manner - Place - Time: He was driving dangerously through the park yesterday.

What is the Passive Voice Transformation?

Used in transformations regarding active or passive speech about objects.

What is Unmarked and Marked Word Order in English?

In English, the neutral, unmarked word order presupposes the grammatical sequence __.

What are Clause Elements and Cohesion?

Reference, elision, substitution, and repetition.

What depends on syntactical clause order?

Coordination and Subordination depend on ___.

What are Coordinators regarding Cohesion and Subordination?

Coordinators or coordinated conjunctions: and, or, but (for, so that).

What is a Finite Clause?

A clause whose verb element is finite.

What is a Non-Finite Clause?

A clause whose verb element is non-finite.

What defines Apposition?

Appositional relative clauses are nominal.

What is the clause of Place?

Conjunctions: where, wherever, and even archaic conjunctions.

What defines the Clause of Time?

No Future Tense for future time actions (states), but a normal tense is used instead.

What defines a Conditional Clause?

Conjunctions are used: if, unless, on condition (that), providing (that), in case, the use of a given (that), and assuming (that).

What is Punctuation and Comma?

Comma's use may vary considerably according to personal tastes and common usage in certain professions

Does Punctuation and Comma's semicolons mean?

A semicolon signals Speeding is illegal; furthermore, it is very dangerous.

What is Generative or Transformative Grammar?

Rules are applied to grammar with the uses of mathematic models.

Grammar includes, Surface structure and Deep structure but meaning?

Surface and Deep structure.

What is Text Linguistics and Discourse Analysis?

Text beyond the limits of a sentence, studied in broader contexts, both verbal and situational.

Basic is Cohesion and Coherence?

Cohesion and Coherence basics display cohesion and coherence regarding text or discourse.

What are the Conversational analysis?

The most widely accepted conversational convention is that people take turns to speak

Meaning vs Speaker's Speaking?

Semantics focuses on what, while Pragmantics focuses on which speaking.

Politeness Principle has a two-form composition, what might these consist?

The Politeness Principle (PP) is characterized by two formulas in pragmalinguistics.

Adjectives is property assigned to a subject, can adjectives describe that?

Adjectives typically express properties in relation to the things or entities expressed by nominals, so does the meaning of properties determine relations?

Compare Adjectives?

Morphological comparisons are adjectives using (with the suffixes -er and -est) is called comparison.

Kernel Sentences contrasted, is this similar at all?

Non-Kernel Sentences are also basic.