AP Psych unit 0

evidence based practice

Underlying all science is, first, a passion for exploring and understanding without misleading or being misled. Some questions are beyond science. Answering them in any way requires a leap of faith.

curiosity

Does it work?
When put to the test, can its predictions be confirmed?

When put to the test, can its predictions be confirmed?

skepticism

What do you mean?
How do you know?

humility

That was unexpected
Explore further

critical thinking

thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, It examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions

hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen It. • The "I-knew-it-all-along" phenomenon.

overconfidence

A cognitive bias in which people overestimate their own abilities or the accuracy of their beliefs and predictions.
leads to poor decision-making
impedes personal growth

illusory correlation

mistakenly perceive a relationship or pattern between unrelated events or variables.
we tend to look for patterns (cognitive bias)

scientific method

A self-correcting process for evaluating ideas with observation and analysis.

peer reviewers

Scientific experts who evaluate a research article's theory, originality, and accuracy.

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

falsifiabiity

Falsifiability: the possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment. This can be seen as a scientific strength.

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced

Case Studies

a technique in which one individual/group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Naturalistic Observation

technique of observing and recording behavior in a naturally occuring situation w/o trying to control situation
weakness: No control of variables; singles cases
may be misleading

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

social desirability bias

Bias from people responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes.

self-report bias

Bias when people report their behavior inaccurately.

sampling bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

correlations

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

variable

Anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure.

correlation coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1.00 to +1.00).

scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables.

positive correlation

Refers to a relationship between two variables in which they both increase or decrease together.

negative correlation

Refers to the relationship between two variables where they move in opposite directions.Example: An increase in one variable results in a decrease in the other variable.

zero correlation

Indicate a complete absence of any relationship or association between the variables being studied. This can mean there are other factors influencing the variables that were not accounted for.

regression toward the mean

A statistical phenomenon that suggests extreme scores or measurements are likely to move closer to the average over time. Exceptional performances are often followed by more typical performances. This concept is important.

experiments

Controlled scientific procedures that allow researchers to test hypotheses and draw conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships.

experimental group

the group that receives the treatment or intervention being studied

control group

the group that does not recieve the treatment; baseline for comparision

random assignment

refers to the process of participants to either the experimental or control group of a research study

single blind procedure

Participants are unaware of whether they are receiving the treatment or a placebo, while the researcher administering the treatment or placebo does know which is which.

double blind procedure

Both the participants and the researcher are unaware of which group is receiving the treatment or the placebo. This helps to minimize bias and ensure accurate results in clinical trials and experiments.

placebo effect

A person experiences a perceived improvement in their symptoms or condition after receiving a placebo treatment, which is essentially an inactive substance or procedure. Highlights the power of the mind and how it influences health and well-being.

Independent Variable

Manipulated by researchers in an experiment to study their effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable

measures or outcomes that are influenced by the independent variable.

cofounding variable

Factors that are not controlled or accounted for in an experiment, but can still impact the results and create a misleading relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

experimenter bias

Refers to the potential for researchers to unintentionally influence the results of a study due to their own personal beliefs, expectations, or biases. This can occur through subtle cues, nonverbal communication, or even unintentional manipulation of the experimental conditions.

validity

Refers to whether it actually measures or examines what it claims to measure or examine. This means that the results obtained from the research are accurate and reliable.

Qualitative research

A research method that relies on narrative data that are not translated into numbers

quantitative research

A research method that relies on in-depth, narrative data that translated into numbers.

non experimental correlations

To detect naturally occurring relationships; to assess how well one variable predicts another collects data on 2 or more variables
weakness: cannot specify cause and effect

experimental

to explore cause and effect
manipulates one or more factors; use random assignment
IV is manipulated
weakness:Sometimes not feasible; results may not generalize to other contexts; not ethical variable
to manipulate certain variables.

theoretical principles

The fundamental concepts and ideas that form the basis of our understanding of a particular phenomenon or field of study. Shapes our knowledge and approach to a subject.

resulting principles

The practical implications, applications, or consequences that arise from those theoretical principles.

Studying animal behaviors

Valuable insights into behavior and cognition that can help us understand human psychology better.

Comparing animals and humans

It can uncover fundamental principles that apply to both.

Advantage of studying animals

It allows for more controlled experiments and manipulations that may not be ethically feasible with humans.

Controlled study of animals

A deeper understanding of underlying mechanisms and processes.

institutional review board

A committee that is responsible for reviewing and approving research involving human participants.

informed consent

Giving potential participants enough Information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to Its participants.

descriptive statistics

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups; includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

histogram

A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.

measures of central tendency

Statistical measures that provide insight into the typical or central value of a dataset.

mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and dividing them by the number of scores.

median

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

percentile rank

A statistical measure that indicates the percentage of individuals in a group who have a score lower than or equal to a particular value.

measures of variation

Statistics that provide information about the spread or dispersion of a dataset.

range

The difference between the largest and smallest values in the data set.

standard deviation

Quantifies the average distance between each data point and the mean. The higher the standard deviation, the more spread out the data is from the mean.

normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shape that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

inferential statistics

Are used to draw conclusions and make predictions about a population based on a sample of data. Involves inferences and hypotheses about the larger population.

statistical significance

Refers to the probability that the results of a study are not due to chance.

p value

Represents the likelihood of obtaining the observed
results if the null hypothesis is true

p value below 0.05

results are statistically significant

Effect Size

A statistical measure used to determine the strength of the relationship between two variables.

Expression of Effect size

Effect size can be expressed in a number of ways, including by using standard deviation units or correlation coefficients.

Psychodynamic

term describes the perspective on psychology in which inner feeling and unconscious tensions are emphasized

Behavioral

the perspective of psychological science that deals with how we learn observable responses

Humanistic

How we meet our needs for love and acceptance and achieve self-fulfillment

Evolutionary

the perspective of psychological science that deals with how nature selects traits that promote the perpetuation of one's genes

Sociocultural

Social interaction and the cultural determinants of behavior and mental processes

Cognitive

how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information

Confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Reliability

Ability of a test to yield very similar scores for the same individual over repeated testings

Generalizability

the extent to which we can claim our findings inform us about a group larger than the one we studied

Sampling

The process of selecting representative units from a total population

Convenience Sampling

choosing individuals who are easiest to reach

Representative Sampling

a process for selecting research participants whose characteristics fairly reflect the characteristics of the population from which they were drawn

Random Sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Meta Analysis

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

Directionality Problem

a problem encountered in correlational studies; the researchers find a relationship between two variables, but they cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable

Third Variable Problem

A problem that occurs when the researcher cannot directly manipulate variables; as a result, the researcher cannot be confident that another, unmeasured variable is not the actual cause of differences in the variables of interest.

Placebo

A harmless pill, medicine, or procedure prescribed more for the psychological benefit to the patient than for any physiological effect.

Cofunding Variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

Participant Bias

a tendency for research participants to respond in a certain way because they know they are being observed, or they believe they know what the researcher wants

Experimenter bias

a phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained

Bimodal Distribution

A distribution (of opinions) that shows two responses being chosen about as frequently as each other.

Protection from harm

the right of research participants to be protected from physical or psychological harm

Confidentiality

the act of holding information in confidence, not to be released to unauthorized individuals

deception

misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the events that will actually transpire

Confederate

a person who is given a role to play in a study so that the social context can be manipulated