ROMAN AND GREEK PHILOSOPHY

What did many historians consider the birth of science in Western civilization?

The shift of causal explanations from god to nature by Greek thinkers.

Who characterized causal explanations as a progression of intellectual stages?

Auguste Comte.

What did Comte label the most primitive level of causal explanation?

Theological.

According to Thales, what is the first element intrinsic to all life?

Water.

What concept did Thales express through his teachings?

Monism.

What did Anaximander suggest about the earth's structure?

The earth is a cylinder suspended in the centre of the universe.

What did Anaximenes propose as the life-giving cause of nature?

Air, which he called pneuma.

What did Democritus believe was the basis of knowledge?

Our knowledge relies on our senses which receive atoms from objects.

What was the critical aspect of Democritus's view on matter?

The quantity of matter is always constant.

According to Heraclitus, what is a unifying principle in nature?

Fire.

What did Parmenides believe about change?

All change is an illusion.

What did Alcmaeon equate health with?

A balance of qualities such as warm and cold.

What did Hippocrates contribute to the understanding of human activity?

The theory of humors.

What are the four humors according to Hippocrates?

Blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm.

What did Empedocles propose as the forces of nature?

Love and strife.

What was Pythagoras's belief about numbers?

They are the basic explanation for everything in the universe.

How did Aristotle differ from Plato regarding essences?

Aristotle believed essences could best be known by studying nature.

What are Aristotle's four causes of existence?

Material, formal, efficient, and final cause.

What are the three types of souls according to Aristotle?

Vegetative, sensitive, and rational.

What did Stoicism emphasize in human life?

The acceptance of fate and the limits of personal freedom.

Who was the first Christian theologian known for his writings?

St. Paul.

How did Augustine view the mind in relation to divine wisdom?

As the receptor for divine wisdom, transcending physical reality.

What is the main philosophical contribution of Augustine?

Christianization of Greek philosophy by affirming the body-soul relationship.

What does the term Neoplatonism refer to?

The revival of interest in Plato's ideas, especially regarding the divine and the soul.

What did Plotinus argue in Neoplatonism?

Matter exists only as formless potential to acquire form.

What was the Christian view of the soul in relation to the body?

The soul is immortal and distinct from the body.

What philosophical influence did the Church Fathers have on Christianity?

They integrated Greek philosophy with Christian teachings.

What moral emphasis did the Stoics instill in Roman society?

Moral and social values based on rational thought.

What principle did Heraclitus emphasize in his philosophy?

The principle of constant change, encapsulated in the phrase 'everything flows'.

What did Democritus theorize about the composition of matter?

Matter is composed of indivisible particles called atoms.

What was the significance of the four humors in Hippocratic medicine?

They were believed to influence physical and mental health, dictating an individual's temperament.

What early concept did Pythagoras introduce that related to harmony and mathematics?

The idea that numbers and their relationships are the foundation of the universe's order.

According to Aristotle, what distinguishes the rational soul from the other types of souls?

The rational soul is capable of reasoning and intellectual thought, unlike the vegetative and sensitive souls.

What did the Stoics believe about emotions and reactions?

Emotions should be governed by reason, and individuals should strive for apatheia, or freedom from passion.

What was the central idea of Augustine's philosophy regarding faith and reason?

Faith is important for knowledge; reason follows faith in understanding divine truth.

What role did the concept of Logos play in Neoplatonism?

Logos represented the divine reason or plan that orders the universe.

What is the significance of the material cause in Aristotle's philosophy?

The material cause explains what something is made of, essential for understanding its existence.

How did the Church Fathers reconcile Pagan philosophy with Christian theology?

They adapted Platonic and Stoic ideas to support Christian doctrines, particularly regarding the nature of God and the soul.

What influence did Aristotle's teachings have on later Western thought?

His emphasis on empirical observation and logic laid the groundwork for the scientific method.

What is the meaning of the term 'Stoa' in Stoicism?

It refers to a covered walkway where Stoic philosophers taught, symbolizing the blending of philosophy with practical living.

How did the concept of fate differ between Stoic philosophy and Christian thought?

Stoics viewed fate as something to be accepted, while Christians saw divine will as part of a personal relationship with God.

What did Anaximander propose about the origins of life?

He suggested that life emerged from the 'apeiron' or infinite, a boundless source of all things.