Enlightenment Thinkers

Who was Thomas Hobbes?

An English Enlightenment philosopher who believed people are naturally selfish and need a strong ruler to maintain order. Author of Leviathan (1651).

What did Hobbes believe about human nature?

Humans are naturally greedy, selfish, and violent. Without government, life would be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”

What was Hobbes’s view of government?

Supported an absolute monarchy — people must surrender freedom to a powerful ruler to prevent chaos.

What is Hobbes’s idea of the social contract?

People give up all rights to a ruler in exchange for law and order and protection.

How did Hobbes define liberty?

Liberty means security under authority; freedom is doing what the law allows.

What is Hobbes’s major work?

Leviathan (1651).

Who was John Locke?

English Enlightenment philosopher who promoted natural rights and inspired modern democracy. Author of Two Treatises of Government (1690).

What did Locke believe about human nature?

People are rational, moral, and cooperative; they can govern themselves.

What are Locke’s natural rights?

Life, liberty, and property — rights everyone is born with.

What is Locke’s idea of the social contract?

People give up some freedoms to a government that protects their natural rights; if it fails, they have the right to revolt.

What type of government did Locke support?

Limited or constitutional monarchy based on the consent of the governed.

How did Locke define liberty?

Liberty means being free under laws that protect your rights, not under arbitrary power.

What is Locke’s major work?

Two Treatises of Government (1690).

Who was Jean-Jacques Rousseau?

French Enlightenment philosopher who emphasized freedom, equality, and the general will. Author of The Social Contract (1762).

What did Rousseau believe about human nature?

People are naturally good but corrupted by society and inequality.

What was Rousseau’s view of government?

Government should express the general will of the people — the collective interest of all citizens.

What is Rousseau’s idea of the social contract?

Individuals give up personal interests to follow the general will, achieving true freedom through participation.

What type of government did Rousseau support?

A direct democracy, where citizens make laws themselves.

How did Rousseau define liberty?

Liberty is obedience to laws you make for yourself — freedom through self-rule.

What is Rousseau’s major work?

The Social Contract (1762).

Who was Montesquieu?

French Enlightenment thinker who studied political systems and argued for separation of powers. Author of The Spirit of the Laws (1748).

What did Montesquieu believe about human nature?

People are motivated by fear and self-interest, so power must be divided to prevent tyranny.

What was Montesquieu’s view of government?

Government should have three branches — legislative, executive, and judicial — to balance power.

What is Montesquieu’s main idea?

Separation of powers and checks and balances protect liberty by preventing any one branch from dominating.

What type of government did Montesquieu support?

A constitutional government, modeled after Britain’s limited monarchy.

How did Montesquieu define liberty?

Liberty is security through balanced government — freedom exists when power cannot abuse citizens.

What is Montesquieu’s major work?

The Spirit of the Laws (1748).

Bernard de Fontenelle (1657–1757)

French writer who helped popularize scientific ideas for ordinary readers. He believed reason and science could explain nature and opposed superstition and religious dogma. His work bridged the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment.

John Locke (1632–1704)

English philosopher who argued that people are born with natural rights — life, liberty, and property. He believed government exists to protect those rights, and if it fails, citizens can rebel. His Two Treatises of Government greatly influenced democracy and the American Revolution.

Pierre Bayle (1647–1706)

French skeptic who criticized religious intolerance and dogma. In his Historical and Critical Dictionary, he argued for freedom of thought and religious tolerance, laying groundwork for Enlightenment skepticism.

David Hume (1711–1776)

Scottish philosopher and skeptic who argued that human knowledge is based on experience, not reason alone. He doubted absolute truths and emphasized empiricism — the idea that all ideas come from sensory experience.

Baron de Montesquieu (1689–1755)

French political philosopher who wrote The Spirit of the Laws (1748). He proposed separation of powers among executive, legislative, and judicial branches to prevent tyranny and protect liberty. His ideas influenced the U.S. Constitution.

Voltaire (1694–1778)

French Enlightenment writer and satirist who championed freedom of speech, religion, and thought. A Deist, he criticized the Catholic Church and absolute monarchy for corruption and intolerance. Famous for saying, “Écrasez l’infâme!” (“Crush the infamous thing!” — meaning superstition and intolerance).

Baron d’Holbach (1723–1789)

French philosopher and atheist who promoted materialism — the belief that everything in the universe can be explained by physical causes. He rejected religion entirely, arguing that morality should be based on reason, not God.

Philosophes

The intellectuals of the Enlightenment — writers, scientists, and thinkers who applied reason to reform society, politics, and religion. They believed in progress, liberty, and tolerance, and included figures like Voltaire, Diderot, Montesquieu, and Rousseau.

Jean le Rond d’Alembert (1717–1783)

French mathematician, physicist, and philosopher who co-edited The Encyclopedia with Diderot. He believed science and reason could improve society and education.

Denis Diderot (1713–1784)

French writer and editor of The Encyclopedia, which aimed to compile all human knowledge and promote reason, science, and progress. Diderot criticized religion, slavery, and absolute monarchy.

The Encyclopedia (1751–1772)

A massive 28-volume collection edited by Diderot and d’Alembert. It included articles on science, philosophy, and government that challenged Church authority and censorship. It spread Enlightenment ideas across Europe.

Deism

The belief that God created the universe but does not interfere in its workings. Deists rejected organized religion, miracles, and revelation, viewing God as a rational creator who set natural laws in motion. Popular among Voltaire and many philosophes.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778)

French philosopher who believed people are naturally good but corrupted by society. In The Social Contract, he argued that government should express the general will of the people and that true liberty means obeying laws one creates for oneself. Supported direct democracy.

Physiocrats

A group of 18th-century French economists (like Quesnay) who believed agriculture was the source of all wealth. They promoted laissez-faire economics — minimal government interference — and opposed mercantilism.

François Quesnay (1694–1774)

Leader of the Physiocrats and author of Tableau Économique. He believed that land and agriculture were the main sources of wealth and that economies follow natural laws best left alone by government (laissez-faire).

Adam Smith (1723–1790)

Scottish economist and author of The Wealth of Nations (1776). Believed in free markets, division of labor, and the “invisible hand” — individuals pursuing self-interest unintentionally benefit society. Considered the father of modern capitalism.