Chapter 8: Thinking

Thinking

A higher mental process involving manipulation and analysis of information received from the environment.

Concept

A mental representation of a category (class of objects, ideas, or events with shared properties).

Problem Solving

Goal-directed thinking to solve a specific problem.

Creative Thinking

Involves novel and original ideas or solutions.

Convergent Thinking

Solves problems with a single correct answer.

Divergent Thinking

Open-ended thinking with multiple possible answers, encouraging creativity.

Language

A system of symbols organized by rules for communication.

Characteristics of Language

Includes symbols, a set of rules to organize symbols, and communication.

Deductive Reasoning

Reasoning from general to specific based on an assumption.

Inductive Reasoning

Reasoning from specific to general based on observation.

Reasoning in Problem Solving

Process of gathering and analyzing information to draw conclusions.

Judgment

Drawing conclusions based on knowledge and evidence.

Decision-Making

Choosing among alternatives by evaluating the associated costs and benefits.

Divergent Thinking Components

Includes fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration.

Stages of Creative Thinking

Preparation, incubation, illumination, and verification.

Does Thinking Occur Without Language?

Jean Piaget believed thought precedes language.

Language Acquisition (Behaviorist Theory)

Learned through association, imitation, and reinforcement according to B.F. Skinner.

Language Acquisition (Innate Proposition)

Noam Chomsky proposed universal grammar and critical periods for language learning.

Stages of Language Development

Crying, babbling, one-word stage, two-word stage, telegraphic speech.

Fluency

The ability to generate many ideas for a task.

Flexibility

The ability to think of a variety of ideas.

Originality

Generating rare and unique ideas.

Elaboration

Detailing and expanding ideas.

Anthropomorphism

Attributing human traits to non-human entities.

Cognitive Dissonance

Conflict experienced when holding contradictory beliefs.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts used for problem-solving and decision-making.

Meta-Cognition

Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

Stereotype

A widely held but oversimplified belief about a group.

Schema

A framework for organizing information.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions.

Intuition

The ability to understand something instinctively, without the need for conscious reasoning.