AP Biology Ultimate Guide (copy)

Elements

Elements

Substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means, such as oxygen (O), carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N).

Trace Elements

Elements required by an organism in very small quantities, like iron (Fe), iodine (I), and copper (Cu).

Atoms

The unit of life and building blocks of the physical world, consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Compounds

Consist of two or more elements held together by chemical bonds like ionic, covalent, or hydrogen bonds.

Water

A versatile molecule with unique properties due to hydrogen bonds, including cohesion, adhesion, and surface tension.

Acids and Bases

Solutions can be acidic (H+ ions), basic (OH- ions), or neutral (pH 7) with a pH scale indicating hydrogen ion concentration.

Organic Molecules

Molecules containing carbon, essential for life, forming polymers like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

Carbohydrates

Organic compounds with a ratio of 1:2:1 of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, categorized as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides.

Proteins

Important for structure and function, made of amino acids with unique R-groups, forming polypeptides with primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures.

Lipids

Consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, including triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids, serving as structural components, energy storage, and signaling molecules.

Cell Surface Markers

Glycoproteins and glycolipids exposed on the extracellular surface of cells, involved in cell recognition and adhesion.

Nucleus

Largest organelle directing cell activities, housing DNA organized into chromosomes, with a visible nucleolus for rRNA synthesis and ribosome assembly.

Ribosomes

Sites of protein synthesis, composed of large and small subunits, can be free-floating or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Continuous channel providing support and transportation, rough ER with ribosomes and smooth ER for lipid synthesis and detoxification.

Golgi Complex

Modifies, processes, and sorts proteins synthesized by ribosomes, packages products into vesicles for distribution.

Mitochondria

Power stations converting organic molecules into ATP, with inner membrane cristae and outer membrane.

Lysosomes

Sac organelles containing digestive enzymes for breaking down old organelles, debris, or large particles.

Vacuoles

Fluid-filled sacs storing various substances in plant cells.

Peroxisomes

Organelles detoxifying substances, producing hydrogen peroxide as a byproduct.

Cytoskeleton

Network of protein fibers determining cell shape, including microtubules and microfilaments.

Cilia and Flagella

Structures with locomotive properties in single-celled organisms.

Plant Cells

Differ from animal cells with a cell wall, chloroplasts, central vacuole, and absence of centrioles.

Passive Transport

Movement of substances down a concentration gradient without external energy, including simple and facilitated diffusion.

Osmosis

Movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane, influenced by tonicity and water potential.

Active Transport

Movement of substances against the concentration gradient powered by ATP, including primary and secondary active transport.

Endocytosis

Process of engulfing substances by the cell membrane to form vesicles, including pinocytosis, phagocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis.

Exocytosis

Process of expelling waste or secretion products from the cell by fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane.

Allosteric Inhibitor

An inhibitor that binds to an allosteric site on an enzyme, causing a change in the enzyme's shape and preventing it from functioning properly.

Noncompetitive Inhibition

A type of inhibition where the inhibitor binds to a site other than the active site of the enzyme, leading to enzyme distortion and loss of catalytic activity.

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

A molecule consisting of adenosine bonded to three phosphates, storing a significant amount of energy in its phosphate bonds.

Cellular Respiration

The process of breaking down sugar to produce ATP, occurring in the presence of oxygen (aerobic respiration) or in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic respiration).

Photosynthesis

The process by which light energy is converted into chemical energy, involving the conversion of carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen in the presence of light.

Chloroplast

Organelles found in plant cells where photosynthesis takes place, containing structures like the stroma, grana, and thylakoids.

Glycolysis

The initial stage of aerobic respiration where glucose is broken down into pyruvic acid, producing ATP and NADH.

Acetyl-CoA

A molecule formed from pyruvic acid during aerobic respiration, entering the Krebs cycle to generate more ATP.

Krebs Cycle

Also known as the citric acid cycle, a series of reactions in aerobic respiration that produce ATP, NADH, and FADH2.

Oxidative Phosphorylation

The final stage of aerobic respiration involving the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis to produce ATP from NADH and FADH2.

Glycolysis

The process of breaking down glucose to produce energy in the form of ATP, pyruvates, and NADH.

Fermentation

A metabolic process that occurs in the absence of oxygen, producing either lactic acid or ethanol as byproducts.

Cell Communication

The process by which cells detect and respond to environmental signals.

Signal Transduction

The transmission of external signals into the cell to elicit a cellular response.

Homeostasis

The maintenance of stable internal conditions in living organisms.

Cell Cycle

The series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication.

Mitosis

The process of cell division that results in two identical daughter cells.

Haploid

A cell containing only one set of chromosomes.

Diploid

A cell containing two sets of chromosomes.

Gregor Mendel

The father of genetics known for his work on inheritance in pea plants.

Recombination Frequency

The percentage of recombination determined by adding recombinants and dividing by total offspring.

Recombination Mapping

Mapping of linkage groups where each map unit equals 1 percent recombination.

Sex-linked Traits

Traits carried on sex chromosomes, such as color blindness and hemophilia.

Barr Bodies

Inactivated X chromosomes in female cells during embryonic development.

Inheritance Patterns

Include incomplete dominance, codominance, polygenic inheritance, and non-nuclear inheritance.

Pedigrees

Special family trees showing genetic traits, helping determine inheritance patterns.

Meiosis

The process of producing gametes in sex cells through two rounds of cell division.

Gametogenesis

The process of producing gametes, known as spermatogenesis in males and oogenesis in females.

Meiotic Errors

Nondisjunction errors during meiosis leading to genetic defects like Down syndrome.

DNA Replication

The process of copying DNA strands involving unwinding, replication fork formation, and DNA polymerase action.

DNA Helicase

Enzyme that unwinds the double helix into two strands.

DNA Polymerase

Enzyme that adds nucleotides to an existing DNA strand.

DNA Ligase

Enzyme that brings together Okazaki fragments during DNA replication.

Topoisomerase

Enzyme that cuts and rejoins the DNA helix to relieve tension.

RNA Primase

Enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of RNA primers during DNA replication.

Transcription

Process of making an RNA copy of a DNA code.

Translation

Process of making a protein from an RNA template.

RNA

Single-stranded nucleic acid with ribose sugar and uracil base.

Exons

Regions in RNA that express the genetic code.

Introns

Noncoding regions in RNA that are removed during splicing.

Operon

Functional unit of DNA in bacteria with structural, promoter, operator, and regulatory genes.

Point Mutations

Mutations resulting from a single nucleotide base substitution.

Gene Rearrangements

Mutations involving insertions, deletions, duplications, inversions, or translocations.

Recombinant DNA

DNA created by combining DNA from different sources.

Natural Selection

Mechanism of evolution based on genetic variation and environmental pressure.

Mutation and Reproduction

Mutations that do not kill an organism before reproduction can be passed on to the next generation.

Sexual Selection

Females choosing to mate with males based on specific traits, like a large and beautiful tail, is an example of sexual selection.

Genetic Drift

Genetic drift causes changes in a population's genetics but is not natural selection; it can occur through the bottleneck effect or founder effect.

Gene Flow

Gene flow happens when individuals migrate between different populations of the same species, leading to genetic exchange.

Directional Selection

The example of moths undergoing directional selection shows a shift in the population towards one extreme trait.

Divergent Evolution

When populations become reproductively isolated and evolve differently due to varied environmental pressures, it is called divergent evolution.

Punctuated Equilibrium

Rapid divergent evolution following a period of stasis is termed punctuated equilibrium.

Pre-zygotic and Post-zygotic Barriers

Pre-zygotic barriers prevent fertilization, while post-zygotic barriers relate to hybrid organisms' inability to produce offspring.

Convergent Evolution

Unrelated species developing similar traits due to similar selective pressures is known as convergent evolution.

Allopatric and Sympatric Speciation

Allopatric speciation occurs when a population is geographically separated, while sympatric speciation happens without physical barriers.

Hardy-Weinberg Law

The law states that genotype frequencies in a population remain constant over time if certain conditions are met.

Endotherms and Ectotherms

Endotherms generate body heat internally, while ectotherms rely on external sources for temperature regulation.

Imprinting

Offspring accepting the first moving object they see as their mother in the absence of the actual mother is known as imprinting.

Circadian Rhythms

Internal clocks or cycles, like those in roosters and plants, are referred to as circadian rhythms.

Symbiotic Relationships

Organisms coexisting in mutualism, commensalism, or parasitism exhibit different types of symbiotic relationships.

Tropisms

Plant responses to stimuli like light (phototropism), gravity (gravitropism), and touch (thigmotropism) are known as tropisms.

Keystone Species

Species that play a crucial role in an ecosystem are termed keystone species.

Simpson’s Diversity Index

The index measures biodiversity in a population based on the number of organisms of each species present.

Carrying Capacity

The maximum number of individuals a habitat can support is known as the carrying capacity of a population.

Ecological Succession

The predictable progression of plant communities over time, including primary succession with pioneer organisms like lichens, is called ecological succession.