Unit 1-4 psychology

Empiricism

The view that (a) knowledge comes from experience, and science should rely on observation and experiment.

Structuralism

An early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind.

Functionalism

A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function-how they enable us to adapt, survive and flourish.

Experimental Psychology

The study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method.

Behaviorism

Psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

Humanistic Psychology

Perspective that emphasizes the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth.

Cognitive Neuroscience

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition.

Psychology

The science of behavior and mental processes.

Nature-Nurture Issue

The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.

Natural Selection

The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Biopsychosocial Approach

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

Biological Psychology

Branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior.

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

Psychodynamic Psychology

Branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior.

Behavioral Perspective

An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the role of learning in explaining observable behavior.

Cognitive Psychology

The scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Social-Cultural Psychology

The study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking.

Psychometrics

The scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.

Basic Research

Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.

Developmental Psychology

A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Educational Psychology

The study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning.

Personality Psychology

The study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Social Psychology

The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

Applied Research

Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.

Industrial-Organizational Psychology

The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces.

Counseling Psychology

A branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living and in achieving greater well-being.

Clinical Psychology

The branch of psychology concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders.

Psychiatry

The branch of medicine dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Operational Definition

A statement of the procedures used to define research variables.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Case Study

An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Survey

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them.

Population

All the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study.

Random Sample

A sample in which every element in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulating or controlling the situation.

Correlation Coefficient

The relationship between variables, between -1 and +1., a statistic representing how closely two variables co-vary

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together.

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship where none exists

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

Double-blind Study

An experimental procedure where both researchers and participants are uninformed about the nature of the independent variable being administered.

Experimental Group

Subjects in an experiment to whom the independent variable is administered.

Control Group

Subjects in an experiment who do not receive application of the independent variable but are measured nonetheless for the dependent variable.

Independent Variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Confounding Variable

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

The outcome; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Standard Deviation

A measure of variability that describes an average distance of every score from the mean.

Normal Curve

Symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data (Normal Distribution)

Statistical Significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Informed Consent

An ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Debriefing

Giving participants in a research study a complete explanation of the study after the study is completed.

Biological Psychology

A branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior.

Neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system.

Motor Neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.

Interneurons

CNS neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Dendrite

The bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

Axon

The extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

Myelin Sheath

Layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons, speeds up neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

Action Potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

Synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters cross the synapse & bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

Reuptake

A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron.

Endorphins

"Morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Nervous System

The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network--all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

Central Nervous System

The brain and the spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body.

Nerves

Bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

Somatic Nervous System

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

Autonomic Nervous System

The part of the nervous system of vertebrates that controls involuntary actions of the smooth muscles and heart and glands.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

Reflex

A simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.

Endocrine System

The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Hormones

Chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another.

Adrenal Glands

A pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. They secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which help to arouse the body in times of stress.

Pituitary Gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Lesion

Tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.

Electroenchephalogram (EEG)

Amplified tracing of brain activity--electrodes positioned over the scalp transmit signals about the brain's electrical activity to an electroencephalograph machine.

CT Computer Tomography

A series of x-rays images are taken in multiple views (especially cross section).

PET (Positron Emission Tomography)

A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

Technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

Technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. MRI scans show brain anatomy; fMRI scans show brain function.

Brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.

Medulla

The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.

Reticular Formation

A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.

Thalamus

The brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

Cerebellum

The "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance.

Limbic System

Neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.

Amygdala

Two lima bean-sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion.

Hypothalamus

Neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion.

Cerebral Cortex

The fabric of interconnecting cells that blankets the brain hemispheres; the brain's center for information processing and control.

Glial Cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.

Frontal Lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments.

Parietal Lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; includes the sensory cortex.

Occipital Lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field.