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Evolution
A field of study that emerges from the desire to define and systemize life
Barriers to Evolution
Time and ability to spend time comparing and observing species from many locations
Lyell and Hutton
proposed the view that gradual changes over long periods of time lead to geological features on Earth (provides time necessary for evolution)
Lamarack
proposed the idea of changes throughout an organism’s life could be inherited and lead to evolutionary change (mostly INCORRECT)
Wallace & Darwin
Suggested the framework for the idea of evolution via natural selection
Variation
Any difference between organisms with a genetic basis (arises from mutation)
Adaptation
Any heritable trait that helps an organisms survival and reproduction in the current environment (genetic basis)
Convergent Evolution
Similar phenotypes are seen in distantly related lineages (due to similar selective pressures, organisms are not closely related)
Divergent Evolution
Lineages become increasingly different from each other (due to different selective pressures, organisms are closely related)
Fossils
Shows changes in lineage over time and shows extinct organisms are distinct from those of today.
Anatomy
comparison of structural similarities and differences between organisms
Biogeography
Geographic distributions of organisms. Patterns that can be explained via evolution in conjunction with tectonic plate movement
Embryology
Used to compare relatedness
Molecular Evolution
Mutations accumulate the more distantly related organisms become
Species
A group of organisms that are able to breed to product fertile, viable offspring
Ecological Levels
Organism>Population>Ecosystem>Community
Allopatric Speciation
Physical separation between a species, no gene flow, populations will adapt to their separate environment
Adaptive Radiation
Relatively rapid evolution of many species from a single ancestor
Postzygotic barriers
Prevents zygotic development or the resulting offspring is sterile
Prezygotic barriers
Prevent reproduction from occurring (temporal, habitat, behavioral, mechanical
Reinforcement
Less fit hybrids; fewer hybrids will be reproduced and eventually disappear
Fusion
When reproduction barriers weaken and species fuse into one species
Stabilization
Hybrids are fit and can reproduce with each other. The species can either remain separate or hybrid can differentiate into a third species.
Alleles
Different versions of a gene
Gene
Unit of DNA that transmits genetic information
Phenotype
Observable trait of an individual (determined by genotype)
Diploid (2n)
2 copies of each chromosome; somatic cells, made via mitosis
Haploid (n)
1 copy of each chromosome, gametes, made via Meiosis
Gene Pool
Sum of alleles present within a population
Founders Effect
initiates change in allele frequency in an isolated population (going to new environment)
Genetic Drift
Change in allele frequency (change rapidly)(no apparent advantage, random, small populations, gene become fixed)
Hardy Weinberg
Allele and genotype frequencies in a population will stay the same through generations in the absence of natural selection or other evolutionary influences
Hardy Weinberg conditions
No gene flow, no natural selection, no mutation, random mating, no genetic drift
Allele frequency equation
p+1=1
Genotype frequency equation
p²+2pq+q²=1
Microevolution
small-scale changes in allele frequency, changes within the gene pool, eventually genus-level speciation
macroevolution
large scale changes in allele frequency of a population, occurring over long periods of time, give rise to new species
Phylogeny
the evolutionary history and relationship of an organism or group of organisms
Rooted
single common ancestor
Branch Point
Single lineage splitting into two; evolution of a new trait
Basal taxon
Unbranched lineage evolved from a common ancestor (often outgroup)
Sister Taxa
Two lineages stemming from same branch point
Polytomy
A branch with 3 or more lineages (undetermined relationship)
Homologous Structures
Physical traits that are similar due to a common ancestor (similar structure different function)
Analogous Structures
Similar physical or genetic traits that evolved separately in two+ organisms that do NOT share a common ancestor; different structure same function
Molecular Homologies
Analysis of comparable DNA segments; if genes in different organisms share many portions of nucleotide sequence, they are likely homologous
Outgroups
reference species/taxon that is distantly related to the ingroup; serves as a reference
Shared Ancestral Character
Character originated in an ancestor of the taxon
Shared Derived Character
Novel evolutionary character, not present in ancestor, only in the descendants
Monophyletic
consists of a common ancestor and all descendents
Paraphyletic
Consists of an ancestral species and some of the descendants
Polyphyletic
Distantly related species but does not include their most recent common ancestor
Pleiomorphy
Shared Ancestral Character (present in ancestor and descendants)
Apomorphy
A novel derived character
Synapomorphy
Shared derived (shared by last common ancestor and descendants)
Autapomorphy
Unique derived (novel character present in only one group, not in recent common ancestor)
Allele Frequency
The rate an allele occurs within a population; change in response to selective pressures
Genotype Frequency
The rate a specific genotype occurs in a population; change in response to changes in allele frequency
Population Genetics
Measurement of the effect of natural selection on the allele and genotype frequency in a population; the change is evolution
Genetic Drift
Changes in allele frequency due to random chance occurring in all population. Allele fixations can be a result
Founder Effect
Skewed representation of a population; allele frequencies are based on the alleles present in founding individuals
Bottleneck Effect
An event that reduces the population size drastically; only certain individuals survive (allele frequency is based on the alleles present in individuals that survive)
Non-Random Mating
Most species compete for mates; individuals do not have equal opportunities to mate; geographic location can be an affect
Gene Flow
Immigration and Emigration of alleles in and out of a population (affects allele frequency and causes less variations between two populations)
Natural Selection selects for/against phenotypes not alleles
Selection for individuals with greater contribution to the gene pool
Natural Selection works on heritable traits
Selects for traits that are beneficial; selects against traits that are deleterious
Stabilizing Selection
Selective pressures for the average phenotype and against extreme phenotypes (genetic variance decreases)
Directional Selection
Selective pressure for on extreme phenotype and against the other extreme and the average (genetic variance shifts to the new phenotype)
Diversifying Selection
Selective pressure for both extreme phenotypes and against average phenotypes (genetic variance in population will increase)
Frequency-Dependent Selection Positive
Selection for common phenotypes; decreases genetic variance; common phenotype increase relative fitness
Frequency-Dependent Selection Negative
Selection for rare phenotypes; fitness is increased when phenotype is rare; increases genetic variance
Sexual Dimorphism/Selection
Males and females of a species exhibit phenotype differences beyond productive organs
Taxonomy
The classification system used to name organisms
Systematics
Classifies organisms based on evolutionary relationships
Phylogeny
Evolutionary history of organisms and their relationships to other organisms
Sympatric Speciation
New populations inhibit the same geographical range; needs to be complete reproductive isolation
Temporal
Variation in time-of-day mating occurs
Behavioral
Different mating cues
Habitat
Individuals specialize within their environment
Polyploidy(plants)
plants can spontaneously go through a diploid organism to a tetraploid organisms creating a new species
Maximum Parsimony
aid in the tremendous task of describing phylogenies, which means that events occurred in the simplest, most obvious way
Gradual Speciation
species diverge gradually over time in small steps
Punctuated Equilibrium Model
a new species undergoes changes quickly from the parent species, and then remains largely unchanged for long periods of time afterward
Vestigial Structures
structures exist in organisms that have no apparent function at all, and appear to be residual parts from a past common ancestor
Handicap Principle/Good Genes Hypothesis
Phenotype is such a disadvantage that only the fittest males can survive with it
Dispersal Allopatric
Few members move to the new area
Vicariance Allopatric
Geographic barrier divides the population