Cognitive psych exam 2

Short-term memory (STM)

The active contents of mind that are currently being processed and thought about, limited in duration and capacity.

Atkinson & Shiffrin Model

A model that categorizes memory into short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM), proposing they are distinct types.

Chunking

A technique to improve memory capacity by organizing information into meaningful units or chunks.

Acoustic coding in STM

The tendency to encode information in short-term memory primarily based on the sounds of words.

Central executive

The component of Baddeley's working memory that directs attention and coordinates information from the other subcomponents.

Primacy effect

The tendency to remember the first items in a list better than those in the middle.

Recency effect

The tendency to remember the last items in a list better than those in the middle.

Capacity of STM according to Miller

The capacity of short-term memory is approximately 7 plus or minus 2 chunks of information.

Decay theory

The theory suggesting that information in memory fades over time if not rehearsed.

Retrieval cues

Stimuli or questions that trigger the recollection of information stored in memory.

Encoding specificity principle

The idea that memory is enhanced when the conditions at the time of encoding match the conditions at the time of retrieval.

Testing effect

The phenomenon where practice testing improves retention of material compared to restudy.

Spaced study

A study technique where study sessions are distributed over time for better retention.

Maintenance rehearsal

A method of encoding that involves repeating information to keep it active in short-term memory.

Elaborative rehearsal

A method of encoding that involves thinking about the meaning of information and forming connections.

Explicit memory

Memory that involves conscious recollection of factual information and events.

Implicit memory

Memory that does not require conscious thought, such as skills and conditioned responses.

Neuropsychology of memory

The study of how brain damage affects memory, exemplified by case studies like those of patient HM.

Population dissociation

Differences observed in memory functions across different patient populations, suggesting separate memory systems.

Self-reference effect

The phenomenon where relating new information to oneself enhances memory performance.

Context-dependent retrieval

The improved recall of information when the context during retrieval matches the context during encoding.

State-dependent retrieval

The improved recall of information when one’s internal state during retrieval matches the state during encoding.

Short-term memory (STM)

The active contents of mind that are currently being processed and thought about, limited in duration and capacity.

Primary memory

William James' term for the immediate contents of consciousness, essentially what is currently in your mind.

Secondary memory

William James' term for content that is no longer in consciousness but can be retrieved into active thought.

Phonological loop

A component of Baddeley

's working memory model that handles auditory and verbal information.

Visuospatial sketchpad

A component of Baddeley

's working memory that holds and manipulates visual and spatial information.

Interference in STM

A phenomenon where new information disrupts the retrieval of older information in short-term memory.

Working memory

A more flexible view of memory allowing for the manipulation and processing of information, as opposed to just passive storage.

Retrieval cues

Stimuli or questions that trigger the recollection of information stored in memory.

Testing effect

The phenomenon where practice testing improves retention of material compared to restudy.

Spaced study

A study technique where study sessions are distributed over time for better retention.

Maintenance rehearsal

A method of encoding that involves repeating information to keep it active in short-term memory.

Elaborative rehearsal

A method of encoding that involves thinking about the meaning of information and forming connections.

Explicit memory

Memory that involves conscious recollection of factual information and events.

Implicit memory

Memory that does not require conscious thought, such as skills and conditioned responses.

Neuropsychology of memory

The study of how brain damage affects memory, exemplified by case studies like those of patient HM.

Population dissociation

Differences observed in memory functions across different patient populations, suggesting separate memory systems.

Self-reference effect

The phenomenon where relating new information to oneself enhances memory performance.

Context-dependent retrieval

The improved recall of information when the context during retrieval matches the context during encoding.

State-dependent retrieval

The improved recall of information when one

's internal state during retrieval matches the state during encoding.

Episodic memory

A type of explicit memory that involves conscious recollection of specific personal events and experiences.

Semantic memory

A type of explicit memory that involves conscious recollection of facts, concepts, and general knowledge about the world.

Procedural memory

A type of implicit memory that involves long-term memory for skills, habits, and unconscious motor movements.

Levels of Processing Theory

A theory suggesting that the depth at which information is processed (e.g., shallow, intermediate, deep) affects its memorability.

Forgetting curve (Ebbinghaus)

A graph showing that the amount of information retained decreases rapidly at first, then levels off over time.

Iconic memory

A very brief type of sensory memory for visual information, lasting mere milliseconds.

Echoic memory

A very brief type of sensory memory for auditory information, typically lasting about 2-4 seconds.

Serial position effect

The phenomenon where recall of items in a list is better for items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) than for items in the middle.

Retrograde amnesia

A form of amnesia where an individual loses memories for events and experiences that occurred before the injury or onset of disease.

Anterograde amnesia

A form of amnesia where an individual is unable to form new memories for events and experiences that occur after the onset of the amnesia-causing event, though past memories may remain intact.

STM vs. Working Memory

Short-term Memory (STM) is primarily a passive storage system, whereas Working Memory involves the active manipulation and processing of information.

Atkinson & Shiffrin Model criticism

This model is criticized for portraying STM as a passive store, which doesn't fully account for the active processing and manipulation of information.

Baddeley's Working Memory Model advantages

A major advantage is its active processing view, explaining how multiple types of information (auditory, visual, spatial) are simultaneously processed.

STM vs. LTM: Capacity & Duration

STM has a limited capacity and short duration (20-30 seconds without rehearsal), while LTM has a virtually unlimited capacity and can last a lifetime.

STM vs. LTM: Encoding

STM primarily uses acoustic coding (sound-based), whereas LTM predominantly uses semantic coding (meaning-based).

Patient HM's primary deficits

Patient HM suffered severe anterograde amnesia (inability to form new declarative memories) due to bilateral hippocampal removal.

Clive Wearing's condition

Clive Wearing experienced profound anterograde and retrograde amnesia due to hippocampal and frontal lobe damage, living in a moment-to-moment existence but retaining procedural memory.

Jimmie G's memory symptom

Jimmie G, affected by Korsakoff's syndrome, had severe anterograde amnesia, believing he was permanently in 1945.

Patient KF's challenge to STM

Patient KF had severely impaired verbal short-term memory (digit span of 2) but intact long-term memory, supporting separate STM and LTM systems, and Baddeley's working memory model.

Single dissociation

Brain damage affecting one cognitive function (e.g., verbal STM) but leaving another (e.g., LTM) intact, suggesting partially independent neural processes.

Double dissociation

Damage to area A impairs function X but not Y, while damage to area B impairs Y but not X; strong evidence that X and Y are independent and rely on distinct brain systems.

Priming

An implicit memory effect where exposure to one stimulus influences the response to a subsequent stimulus, often without conscious awareness, leading to increased speed or accuracy.

Indirect vs. Direct memory tests

Indirect memory tests assess implicit memory without conscious recollection (e.g., word completion), while direct tests require conscious recall or recognition (e.g., recall, recognition).

Example of an indirect memory test

A word-stem completion task, where prior exposure to a word (e.g., 'ELEPHANT') influences the completion of its stem (e.g., 'ELEPH__').

Best encoding method for LTM

Elaborative rehearsal, which involves deeply processing information by thinking about its meaning and connecting it to existing knowledge, is most effective for long-term retention.

Additional effective study habits

Beyond spaced study and the testing effect, effective