A&P 1: Final Exam-Houston Community College (HCC)-Dr. Manhal Chbat

1. distance
2. molecule size
3. temperature
4. concentration gradient
5. electrical forces
6. diffusion across plasma membranes

What factors affect the rate of diffusion?

can be simple or channel mediated

How does diffusion across plasma membranes affect the rate of diffusion?

simple diffusion

What are materials that diffuse through plasma membrane through lipid-soluble compounds (alcohols, fatty acids, steroids) and dissolved gas (oxygen and carbon dioxide)?

osmosis

*What is the diffusion of water across the cell membrane?
*What type of diffusion has more solute molecules, lower concentration of water molecules?
*What type of diffusion has a membrane that must be freely permeable to water, selectively permeable to solutes?
*What type of diffusion has water molecules diffuse across membrane toward solution with more solutes?
*What type of diffusion has volume increase on the side with more solutes?

isotonic (iso=same, tonos=tension)

What is a solution that does not cause osmotic flow of water in or out of a cell?

hypotonic (hypo=below, tonos=tension)

What has less solutes and loses water through osmosis?

hypertonic (hyper=above, tonos=tension)

What has more solutes and gains water by osmosis?

1. hypotonic solution
2. ruptures (hemolysis of red blood cells)

What type of solution is a cell that gains water?
What happens?

1. hypertonic solution
2. shrinks (crenation of red blood cells)

What type of solution loses water?
What happens?

1. chemical (atom) (lowest level)
2. cellular level (cells)
3. tissue level (tissue)
4. organ level (organs)
5. organ system level (organ system)
6. organism level (organism, human)

Name the levels of organization of the human body in decreasing to increasing order.

homeostasis

What is the existence of a stable internal environment. The goal of physiological regulation and the key to survival in a changing environment?

11 organ systems

How many organ systems do humans have?

1. acidic
2. It contains more hydrogen ions than hydroxide ions.

A solution with a pH below 7 is what?
What does this mean?

1. basic or alkaline
2. It has more hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions.

A solution with a pH above 7 is what?
What does this mean?

7.35 to 7.45

What is the normal pH of blood ranges?

buffer

What are compounds that stabilize the pH of a solution by removing or replacing hydrogen ions?

1. buffer system
2. carbonic acid-bicarbonate system

1. What resists abrupt and large changes in the pH of the body fluids? Usually consist of a weak acid and a weak base.
2. Name an example.

hypertonic solution

What type of solution causes crenation of red blood cells?

hypotonic solution

What type of solution causes hemolysis of red blood cells?

1. cytoskeleton
2. microvilli
3. centrioles
4. cilia
5. ribosomes
6. proteasomes

Name non-membranous organelles.

1. endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
2. Golgi apparatus
3. lysosomes
4. peroxisomes
5. mitochondria

Name membranous organelles.

non-membranous organelles

What type of organelle has no direct contact with cytosol?

membranous organelles

What type of organelle is isolated from cytosol?

microtubules

*What cytoskeleton is large, hollow tubes of tubulin?
*What cytoskeleton attaches to centrosome?
*What cytoskeleton strengthens cell and anchor organelles?
*What cytoskeleton changes cell shape?
*What cytoskeleton moves vesicles within cell (kinesin and dynein)?

centrioles

*What forms spindle apparatus (mitotic spindle) during cell division?
*What organelle is capable of cell division and the centrosome surrounds a pair of cylindrical structures.
*What organelle produces an arrangement of 9 microtubule triplets (9+0 array)?

ribosomes

What organelle builds polypeptides in protein synthesis?

1. free ribosomes
2. fixed ribosomes

Name two types of ribosomes.

free ribosomes

What ribosome is in the cytoplasm and manufactures protein for cells?

fixed ribosomes

What ribosome is attached to ER and manufactures protein for secretion?

smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

What organelle has functions:
1. Synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids.
2. Storage of synthesized molecules and materials.
3. Transport of materials within the ER.
4. Detoxification of drugs or toxins.

smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

Which ER synthesized lipids and carbohydrates?

rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

Which ER has its surface covered with ribosomes?

rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

Which ER is active in protein and glycoprotein synthesis?

rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

Which ER folds polypeptide protein structures?

rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

Which ER encloses products in transport vesicles?

Golgi apparatus

What organelle contains vesicles enter forming face and exit maturing face?

Golgi apparatus

What organelle has functions:
1. modifies and packages secretions (hormones or enzymes; released through exocytosis
2. renews or modifies the plasma membrane
3. packages special enzymes within vesicles (lysosomes)

lysosomes

What organelle is a powerful enzyme-containing vesicle?

lysosomes

What organelle has functions:
1. clean up inside cells
2. autolysis

primary lysosome

Which lysosome is formed by Golgi apparatus and inactive enzymes?

secondary lysosome

Which lysosome has
fused with damaged organelle
digestive enzymes activated
toxic chemicals isolated

1. break down large molecules
2. attach bacteria
3. recycle damaged organelles
4. eject wastes by exocytosis

How does a lysosome clean up inside cells?

autolysis

What is a self-destruction of damaged cells?

1. lysosome membranes brake down
2. digestive enzymes released
3. cell decomposes
4. cellular materials recycle

How does lysosome self-destruct damaged cells?

mitochondria

What organelle self-replicates during time of increased cellular demand or before cell division, contain their own DNA and RNA?

mitochondria

What organelle contains cristae?

cristae

What is the inner membrane that contains numerous folds?

mitochondria

What organelle has a matrix?

1. mitochondrion
2. ATP

Where does chemical energy from food (glucose) take place?
What energy molecule does it produce?

receptor (detects stimuli), control center (output command/brain), effector (receives output command and produces the stimulus)

What are three basic components of the feedback system?

negative feedback

What is response opposes variations from normal? It reverses (negates) a change in a controlled condition.

positive feedback

What is an initial stimulus that produces a response that strengthens, reinforces, exaggerates or enhances the original change in conditions, rather than opposing it.

regulation of blood pressure, body temperature, blood glucose levels

What are examples of negative feedback?

normal child birth and blood clotting

What is are examples of positive feedback?

blood loss

What is and example of a bad positive feedback?

hypothalamus region of the brain

In the homeostatic control of body temperature, what is the control center?

active transport

What transport requires energy and ATP?
Is vesicular transport active transport or passive transport?

passive transport

What transport requires no energy?
Is diffusion active transport or passive transport?

1. ionic
2. covalent
3. hydrogen

Name three types of chemical bonds.

covalent bond

What are atoms that complete their outer electron shells not by gaining or losing electrons, but by sharing electrons with other atoms?

1. hydrogen (H₂)
2. oxygen (O₂)
3. carbon dioxide (CO₂)
4. nitrogen (N₂)
5. nitric oxide (NO)

Name examples of covalent bonds.

free radical

Note:
Free radicals can become stable by giving up or gaining and electron (antioxidants are substances that inactivate oxygen-derived free radicals)

What is an atom, ion, or molecule that contains unpaired electrons in its outermost energy level are unstable and highly reactive?

hydrogen bonds
Hydrogen bonds are too weak to create molecules, but they can change the shapes of molecules or pull molecules closer together (i.e. water molecule)

What weak attractive force has the attraction between a slight positive charge on this atom of a polar covalent bond and a slight negative charge on an oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine atom of another polar covalent bond?

water (H₂O)

Name example for hydrogen bond.

ionic bond

What are chemical bonds created by two ions of opposite charge (cation and anion)?

1. temperature
2. partial size
3. concentration
4. catalysts
5. enzymes

Name factors that influence the rate of reactions.

carbon and hydrogen

What must organic compounds contain?

They don't contain carbon and hydrogen.

What must inorganic compounds contain?

water

What is the most important and abundant inorganic compound in all living systems?

1. acids
2. lowers the pH
3. proton donor

1. What is any solute that dissociates in solution and releases hydrogen ions?

2.What does it do to the pH?

3. Is it a proton donor or proton acceptor?

1. bases
2. raises the pH
3. proton acceptor

1. What is a solute that removes hydrogen ions from a solution?

2. What does it do to the pH?

3. Is it a proton donor or proton acceptor?

salts

Note:
Because they are held together by ionic bonds, many slats dissociate completely in water, releasing cations and anions.

What is an ionic compound containing any cation except a hydrogen ion, and any anion except hydroxide ion?

buffers

What are compounds that stabilize the pH of a solution by removing or replacing hydrogen ions?

1. buffer system
2. carbonic acid-bicarbonate system

What involves a weak acid and its related salt, which function as a weak base, and resists abrupt and large changes in the pH of the body fluids?

Name an example.

1. mitosis
2. full copy or duplication of DNA, and only after DNA replication, splits into two daughter cells

What occurs during the division of somatic cells?
What is the result?

gametes

What are the only cells of the human body not produced by mitosis?

meiosis

What is cell division that produces gametes (sex cells) that result with half the normal somatic chromosome complement (DNA)?

1. interphase
2. mitosis
3. cytokinesis (two complete daughter cells)

What are the three stages of a cell's life cycle?

1. interphase
2. G-zero (G₀) phase, G₁ phase, S phase, G₂ phase

What is the non-dividing period of the cell life cycle, and performs all its normal functions and, if necessary, prepares for cell division?

Name the periods.

G-zero (G₀) phase

What phase is the interphase cell not preparing for division, but is performing all of the other functions appropriate for that particular cell type.

1. G₁ phase
2. 8 or more hours

What phase is the interphase cell is normal cell functions plus cell growth, duplication of organelles and protein synthesis?

What is the timeframe for this phase?

1. S-phase
2. 6-8 hours

What phase is the interphase cell is the DNA replication and synthesis of histones?

What is the timeframe for this phase?

1. G₂ phase
2. 2-5 hours

What phase is the interphase cell where DNA replication has ended, protein synthesis, and completion of centriole replication?

What is the timeframe for this phase?

1. Mitosis (M-phase)
2. cytokinesis
3. 1-3 hours

What phase separates (divides) the duplicated chromosomes of a cell into two identical nuclei (two sets of chromosomes)?

What is the division of the cytoplasm to form two complete distinct new cells?

What is the timeframe for this phase?

P-MAT
1. prophase
2. metaphase
3. anaphase
4. telophase and cytokinesis

Name the 4 stages of mitosis (M-phase)?

early prophase

What stage of mitosis has the following characteristics:
* begins when the chromosomes coil so tightly they become visible as single structures under a light microscope
* an array of microtubules (spindle fibers) extends between the centriole pairs
* smaller microtubules (astral rays) radiate into the cytoplasm?

1. metaphase
2. metaphase plate

What stage of mitosis has the following characteristics:
* begins as the chromatids move to a narrow central plane
* it ends when all the chromatids are aligned in the central plane?

What is the central plane called?

anaphase

What stage of mitosis has the following characteristics:
* begins whent the centromere of each chromatid pair split
* chromatids separate
* two daughter chromosomes are pulled apart and drawn to opposite ends of the cell along the chromosomal microtubules (spindle apparatus)?

spindle apparatus

What is the complex of spindle fibers?

telophase

What stage of mitosis has the following characteristics:
* each new cell prepares to return to the interphase state
* nuclear membranes re-form
* nucleolus re-forms
* nuclear envelope re-form
* nuclei enlarge
* chromosomes gradually uncoil
* this stage marks the end of mitosis

telophase

What stage of mitosis has the cleavage furrow?

cytokinesis

What stage of mitosis has the following characteristics:
* the division of the cytoplasm into two daughter cells
* usually begins with the formation of a cleavage furrow and continues throughout telophase
* completion marks the end of cell division?

1. epithelial
2. connective
3. muscular
4. nervous

Name 4 types of tissues.

connective tissue

What type of tissue fills internal spaces?
What type of tissue provides structural support, transports materials within the body, and stores energy?

1. specialized cells
2. solid extracellular protein fibers
3. fluid extracellular ground substance

What are the characteristics of connective tissue?

muscular tissue

What type of tissue generates the physical force needed to make body structures move (contraction) and generate body heat?

nervous tissue

What type of tissue detects changes in body and responds by generating nerve impulses (electrical signals)?

epithelial tissue

What type of tissue covers body surfaces?
What type of tissue and lines hollow organs, body cavities, duct and form glands?

1. cellularity
2. polarity
3. attachment
4. avascularity
5. regeneration

What are the characteristics of epithelia?

1. provide physical protection
2. control permeability
3. provide sensation
4. produce specialized secretions

What are the functions of epithelia?