PHL 225 Final Exam Flashcards

Deductive Validity

• An argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the premises, regardless of whether the premises are true.

Soundness

• An argument is sound if it is valid and all its premises are true.

Conceptual Analysis: Necessary Conditions

• A condition that must be met for something to belong to a category. (e.g., Being unmarried is necessary to be a bachelor.)

Moral Rights vs Utility Example

Example: Breaking into someone's home to steal medicine that could save 10 lives. This violates the homeowner's moral rights but increases overall utility.

Conceptual Analysis: Sufficient Conditions

• A condition that, if met, guarantees membership in a category. (e.g., Being a male, adult, and unmarried is sufficient for being a bachelor.)

Thought Experiments

test intuitions by imagining hypothetical situations (Drowning child scenario)

Voting Paradox

• Act utilitarianism might suggest not voting (because one vote rarely changes outcomes), which undermines the utility of democratic systems.

Rule Utilitarianism and Consequentialism

Rule utilitarianism evaluates rules based on their consequences, maintaining consequentialism by aiming to maximize utility through adherence to beneficial rules.

Rule Utilitarianism

• Rule utilitarianism resolves this by endorsing a rule that encourages voting to maintain democratic processes.

Kantian Concepts

Maxim

• A principle or intention guiding an action.

Categorical Imperative

• A universal, unconditional moral law.

Formula of Universal Law

• Act only on maxims that can be universalized without contradiction.

Formula of the End in Itself

• Treat humanity as an end, never merely as a means.

Insincere Promises (Fail Universal Law)

If everyone made insincere promises, trust in promises would collapse.

Rule U-tism vs Kantianism

Rule U-ism focuses on rules that promote utility, not moral duty for its own sake (as Kant does).

Case Study: Inferior Materials

Violates both formulations of the Categorical Imperative by using deception for profit.

Rights and Distributive Justice

Negative Right

• Freedom from interference (e.g., free speech).

Positive Right

• Entitlement to a benefit (e.g., healthcare).

Right to Bodily Autonomy

A negative right because it protects against interference with one's body.

Theories of Distributive Justice: Capitalist

• Contribution determines benefits (e.g., effort, productivity, market value).

Socialist

• Distribution based on needs and fairness, not equality.

Rawls: Original Position and Veil of Ignorance

• Imagining society without knowing personal status to ensure fairness.

Difference Principle

• Inequalities are justified if they benefit the least advantaged.

Virtue Ethics

Chief Good (Eudaimonia)

Human flourishing or living well.

Function Argument

A "good" person fulfills the human function (rational activity) virtuously.

Virtue as a Mean:

• Virtue lies between extremes (vices of excess and deficiency).

• Example: Courage lies between recklessness (excess) and cowardice (deficiency).

Intellectual Virtues

• Acquired through instruction and learning.

Moral Virtues

• Developed through habituation (practice).

Bootstraps Problem

Acting virtuously reinforces virtues; early attempts may not be perfect but foster moral growth.

Case Study

• Restraining from cutting someone off in traffic shows control but not necessarily patience (a true virtue).

Sexism, Racism, and Oppression

Discrimination Examples

• Individual: Refusing to hire based on race.

• Institutional: Policies
  disproportionately disadvantaging minorities.

Bird Cage Analogy (Frye)

Focus on individual wires (discriminatory acts) misses the systemic nature of oppression.

Non-intentional Racism

Biases in systems or actions without explicit intent to harm (e.g., racial profiling in policing).

Appiah’s Racialism

• Belief in inherent racial characteristics (neutral, but can lead to racism).

Intrinsic Racism

• Value based on race itself.

Extrinsic Racism

• Value based on assumed traits of races.

Abortion Ethics

Thomson’s Thought Experiments

• People Seeds: Contraceptive failure leading to pregnancy.

• Henry Fonda: Illustrates moral vs legal obligations.

Hursthouse on Virtue Ethics

Virtue ethics focuses on character and relationships, bypassing personhood debates.

Marquis on Killing

• Wrongness lies in depriving a being of a "future like ours."

Obligations to the Poor

Singer’s Principles: Strong and Weak

• Strong: Prevent harm unless it requires sacrificing something of equal moral importance.

• Weak: Prevent harm unless it requires sacrificing something of significant moral importance.

Drowning Child Analogy

• Failing to help a child violates moral obligations, even if no direct rights are violated.

Supererogatory Actions

Actions beyond duty (e.g., donating a kidney).

Animal Rights

Singer on Animal Rights

Equal consideration of interests based on capacity to suffer.

Anthropocentric vs Ecological Ethics

• Anthropocentric: Focuses on human interests.

• Ecological: Values ecosystems intrinsically.