THEORIES OF PERSONALITY SW

Honesty-Humility (H)

This dimension describes a person's tendency to be sincere, fair, and modest versus manipulative, greedy, and boastful. 

Emotionality (E)

This factor reflects the extent to which someone experiences and expresses emotions like fear, anxiety, and sadness. In other words, emotional, oversensitive, faithful, anxious VERSUS brave, tough, self-assured, stable

Extraversion (X)

Similar to the Big Five, this dimension describes a person's sociability, assertiveness, and enthusiasm. Outgoing, lively, sociable, cheerful VERSUS shy, passive, withdrawn, reserved

Agreeableness (A)

This factor assesses a person's tendency to be kind, forgiving, and tolerant versus critical, arrogant, and irritable. 

Conscientiousness (C)

This dimension reflects a person's self-discipline, organization, and goal-directedness. Disciplined, diligent, thorough, precise VERSUS reckless, lazy, irresponsible, absent-minded

Openness to Experience (O)

This factor describes a person's appreciation for art, emotions, adventure, and unconventional ideas. Creative, innovative, unconventional VERSUS shallow, conventional, unimaginative

Neuroticism

This factor is associated with emotional stability and the tendency to experience negative emotions. High scorers may be prone to anxiety, worry, and sadness, while low scorers tend to be more emotionally stable and resilient. (Worried, insecure, nervous, highly strung)

Extraversion

This dimension describes a person's sociability, assertiveness, and emotional expression. They are outgoing and seek excitement, while introverts are more reserved and quiet. (Sociable, talkative, fun-loving, affectionate)

Openness

This trait reflects a person's tendency to be imaginative, curious, and open to new experiences. High scorers are often creative, enjoy variety, and are independent thinkers, while low scorers prefer routine and are more practical. (Original, independent, creative, daring).

Agreeableness

This trait reflects a person's tendency to be cooperative, trustworthy, and kind. High scorers are empathetic and helpful, while low scorers can be more critical and uncooperative. (Good-natured, softhearted, trusting, courteous)

Conscientiousness

This factor refers to the degree to which a person is organized, responsible, and dependable. High scorers are typically goal-oriented, hardworking, and thoughtful, while low scorers may be more impulsive and careless (Careful, reliable, hardworking, organized).

Extraversion vs. Introversion

This dimension reflects a person's sociability, impulsiveness, and need for stimulation. The other are outgoing and sociable, while another prefer solitude and less stimulating environments. 

Neuroticism vs. Stability

This dimension relates to emotional stability and anxiety levels. High neuroticism is associated with anxiety, moodiness, and emotional instability, while high stability indicates emotional calmness and resilience. 

Psychoticism vs. Superego Function

This dimension, later added by Eysenck, involves traits like aggression, impulsivity, and a disregard for social norms. High psychoticism suggests traits like hostility and insensitivity, while high superego function indicates empathy and social responsibility.

Trait Theory

It is a framework for understanding personality by suggesting that individual differences can be understood through a hierarchical structure of traits largely determined by biological factors. 

Moral Development

the gradual development of an individuals concept of right or wrong – conscious, religious values, social attitudes and certain behaviour.

Pre-Conventional Morality

The age range in this stage is 0 - 9 years old. This level, typically found in young children, focuses on self-interest and avoiding punishment.

Conventional Morality

The age ranges from 10 - 15 years old. This level, common in adolescents and most adults, emphasizes societal norms and expectations.

Post-Conventional Morality

The age ranges from 16 and above. This level, reached by only a minority of adults, focuses on universal ethical principles and the greater good.

Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation

Individuals act based on avoiding punishment. The source of authority is usually the parents.

Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange

Individuals act based on self-interest and what benefits them. “If you help me, I help you” principle.

Stage 3: Good boy - good girl orientation

Individuals act to gain approval and maintain positive relationships. Living up to social expectations and roles. Individuals believe that good behavior is what pleases other people.

Stage 4: Law and Social Order

Individuals act based on upholding laws and maintaining social order. Focus on doing their duty, respecting authority, following rules and laws without questioning them.

Stage 5: Legalistic Social Contract

Individuals recognize that laws are social contracts and can be changed if they are unjust. Rules, laws and regulations are not seen as irrelevant; they are important ways of ensuring fairness but people operating at this level also see times when the rules, laws and regulations need to be changed or ignored.

Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles

Individuals act based on their own internalized ethical principles, even if they conflict with the law.

Women

This particular gender in Giligan’s theory highlights its emphasis on care orientation and relationships.

Men

Giligan’s critiques Kohlberg’s theory of moral development based on its priorities in making moral decisions which is based on justice and focuses on this certain gender.

Pre-conventional

Focus: Individual survival and self-interest. 

Transition: A shift from selfishness to responsibility, often driven by a growing awareness of connections with others. 

Conventional

At this level, moral judgment becomes concentrated on caring for others. Women start to see themselves as participants in a society whose claim to being good citizens relies on helping and protecting others. This concern for others overrides their concern for themselves, leading to a morality focused on self-sacrifice.

Transition: A move from focusing solely on others' needs to recognizing the importance of balancing care for self and others. 

Post-conventional

At this level, making moral judgments focuses on the principle of nonviolence. It's important to remember that your own needs matter just as much as the needs of others. This balance leads many women to develop a universal ethic of care and concern for everyone around them. Adhering to the obligation of care while avoiding harm or exploitation to themselves and others enables women to accept responsibility for their choices.

Basic Anxiety

A feelings of loneliness and isolation which stemmed from the separation from the natural world.

Existential Dichotomies

This refers to the inherent, unavoidable conflicts in human existence that arise from our self-awareness and unique position in the world, for example, life and death.

Relatedness

The drive for union with another person or other persons.

Transcendence

The urge to rise above a passive and accidental existence and into the realm of purposefulness and freedom, for example, writing a novel, building something, or mentoring someone.

Rootedness

The need to feel a sense of belonging and connection to something larger than oneself, like family, community, or nature. This can be achieved through healthy attachments and feeling at home in the world, for example, maintaining cultural traditions or feeling secure in a family.

Identity

The need to develop a sense of self and individuality, differentiating oneself from others and the world. This involves recognizing one's own unique characteristics and values, for example, identifying as an artist, teacher, or member of a cause.

Frame of Orientation

The need for a system of beliefs and values that provides a sense of direction and purpose in life, helping individuals make sense of the world and their place in it, for example, following a religion, philosophy, or life purpose to guide choices.

Receptive Character Type

This unproductive character orientation is described as their need for constant support. They tend to be passive, needy, and totally dependent upon others. These type of people tend to lack confidence in their abilities and have difficulty making their own decisions.

Exploitative Character Type

People with this unproductive character orientation are willing to lie, cheat, and manipulate others in order to get what they need. In order to fulfill their need to belong, they might seek out people who have low self-esteem or lie about loving someone they really don't care about.

Hoarding Character Type

People with this unproductive character orientation copes with insecurity by never parting with anything. They often collect a massive amount of possessions and often seem to care more about their material possessions than they do about people. They have an unhealthy attachment to material items and feel more secure when surrounded by their many possessions. Despite accumulating large quantities of material goods, they never feel satisfied, and it always seems like something is lacking.

Marketing Character Type

People with this unproductive character orientation looks at relationships in terms of what they can gain from the exchange. They might focus on marrying someone for money or social status and tend to have shallow and anxious personalities. Fromm believed that people with this character type tend to be opportunistic and change their beliefs and values depending on what they think will get them ahead.

Existential Needs

An inborn psychological drive to overcome feelings of isolation and find meaning, belonging, and purpose in life.

Observational Learning

Learning new responses by observing the behavior of other people.

Vicarious Reinforcement

Learning or strengthening a behavior by observing the behavior of others, and the consequences of that behavior, rather than experiencing the reinforcement or consequences directly.

Social Learning theory

A theory where people learn new behaviors by watching others and imitating their actions.

Modeling

Learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others

Attention

The learner must focus on the model's behavior. For example, a child watches their parent drive a car.

Retention

The learner must remember the observed behavior. For example, the child remembers how to turn the steering wheel.

Reproduction

The learner must be physically able to imitate the behavior. For example, when old enough, the child practices driving.

Motivation

The learner must have a reason to imitate the behavior. For example, the child wants to learn to drive to gain independence.

Live model

A type of modeling where a teacher showing a student how to solve a math problem.

Verbal Instructions

A type of modeling where a coach explaining how to throw a basketball.

Symbolic Model

A type of modeling where a child is learning kindness from watching a TV character.

Vicarious Punishment

The observer sees a model punished, making them less likely to copy the behavior.

Self-reinforcement

Administering rewards or punishments to oneself for meeting, exceeding, or falling short of one’s own expectations or standards. For instance, buying oneself an ice cream after getting high scores in exams.

Self-efficacy

A person’s belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations.

High Self-efficacy

A type of self-efficacy where the person is confident in one's abilities.

Low Self-efficacy

A type of self-efficacy where the person is doubting in one's abilities.

Reciprocal Determinism

Behavior, environment, and personal factors all influence each other.

Burrhus Frederick Skinner

He argued that psychologists must restrict their investigations to facts, to only what they can see, manipulate, and measure in the laboratory. In addition, he contended that psychology is the science of behavior, of what an organism does. His theory is an antithesis of the psychoanalytic.

Reinforcement

It is the basis of behavior. The act of strengthening a response by adding a reward, thus increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated.

Respondent Behavior

It is a reflexive behavior wherein it is unlearned, occurs automatically and involuntarily (e.g., knee jerk).

Punishment

This decreases the likelihood of the the behavior to be repeated.

Operant behavior

These are the behaviors individuals release that are influenced by their consequences. It emitted spontaneously or voluntarily that operates on the environment to change it.

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning where behavior is controlled by consequences.

Reinforcement Schedules

Patterns or rates of providing or withholding reinforcers.

Positive Reinforcement

A type of reinforcement where adding a pleasant stimulus to increase the behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

A type of reinforcement where removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase the behavior.

Positive Punishment

A type of punishment where adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the behavior.

Negative Punishment

A type of punishment where removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.

Fixed interval

Reward is produced after a set time period (e.g., monthly salary every 15th and 30th day of the month)

Fixed ratio

Reward is produced after a set number of responses (e.g., employee is rewarded with 30k php after successfully selling 5 Ferrari cars)

Variable ratio

Reward is given after a ramdom number of responses (e.g., slot machines).

Variable interval

Reward is given at unpredictable times (e.g., appearance of fish nibbling at fish bait at random number of hours).

Shaping

A technique in operant conditioning that involves reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior until the complete behavior is learned. It's used to teach complex behaviors by breaking them down into smaller, manageable steps, and rewarding each step as the learner progresses towards the final goal.

Safety need

A higher level need for security and freedom from fear.

Neurotic Theory

Childhood experiences, particularly negative ones, shape personality and lead to neurotic behaviors in adulthood

Basic Evil

The negative experiences in childhood that make a child feel unloved, unsafe, or worthless.

Basic Hostility

A child who experiences basic evil develops anger toward their parents for mistreating them. However, they suppress this anger because they still depend on their parents for survival.

Basic Anxiety

Children cannot express their hostility openly, they turn their fear inward which results in ______—a deep feeling of insecurity and helplessness in a world they see as threatening.

Neurotic needs

Ten irrational defenses against anxiety that become a permanent part of personality and that affect behavior.

Compliant personality

Movement toward other people

Aggressive personality

Movement against other people

Detached personality

Movement away from the people

Need for affection and approval

Always seeking love and validation, avoiding conflict at all costs.

Need for a partner

Fear of being alone, believing that happiness depends on a romantic relationship.

Need for a narrow life

Prefers to stay unnoticed, avoids responsibility, and fears independence.

Need for power

Wants to dominate and control others to avoid feeling weak.

Need to exploit others

Uses people for personal gain, believes relationships are manipulative.

Need for social recognition

Obsessed with being admired, seeks validation through popularity

Need for personal achievement

Must be the best at everything, often competitive and insecure.

Need for self-sufficiency and independence

Avoids closeness to prevent being controlled.

Need for perfection

Obsessed with avoiding mistakes, fears failure.

Need to restrict life

Avoids risk-taking, prefers a simple, predictable life.

Moving towards people

“If I give in, I will not be hurt.”

Moving against people

“If I have power, none will hurt me”

Moving away from people

“If I withdraw, nothing can hurt me”

Feminine Psychology

This is the revision of psychoanalysis to encompass the psychological conflicts inherent in the traditional ideal of womanhood and women’s roles.

Womb Envy

The envy a male feels toward a female because she can bear children and he cannot. Womb envy was Horney’s response to Freud’s concept of penis envy in females.