Cultural Psychology Exam 1

What is Heine’s definition of culture?

• Information acquired from others through social learning that can influence behaviour

• A group of people within a shared context

What are challenges in defining culture?

• Cultural boundaries are not always clear-cut

• Culture is dynamic

What s general psychology?

Focuses on universals and assumes that the mind is independent from context and content

What is cultural psychology?

It studies the different meaning systems that we create in our minds in response to living in different environments

Give an example of an abstract definition

Marriage = a man and woman falling in love and agreeing to spend their lives together

Give an example of a concrete definition

Marriage = a formal arrangement between a man and a woman that includes sexual exclusivity

What are the four levels of universality according to Heine?

Nonuniversal, existential universal, functional universal, accessibility universal

Define Nonuniversal

Cultural inventions, or psychological processes, that do not exist in all cultures

Give an example of nonuniversal

Anything specific to a culture than cultures in general (e.g., stanley cups, fidget spinners, labubus)

Define existential universal

Exists in all cultures, but doesn’t necessarily serve the same function or purpose in every culture that it exists and not equally accessible to every individual in that culture

Give an example of existential universal

Gun culture:

• Used for: Leisure, hunting, military, trophy show

• Everyone in America can buy a gun, but in other countries, restrictions are cheaper

Define Functional Universal

Exists in all cultures and serves the same function or purpose in all cultures, but not equally accessible to every individual in that culture

Give an example of functional universal

The Internet

• COVID-19 example:

• Students with home internet could continue school online

• Students without home internet faced barriers (e.g., relying on internet cafés, or being excluded)

Define Accessibility Universal

Exists in all cultures, serves the same function in all cultures, and is easily accessible in all cultures

Give an example of accessibility universal

Language acquisition

• Human brains are designed for language, and even if no formal language exists, groups (e.g., deaf communities without prior sign language) will create a language when together

Social facilitation = performance changes under social pressure

• Well-practiced / strong skills → improve under pressure

• Weak / poorly learned skills → worsen under pressure

What is a WEIRD society?

Western, Educated, Industrialised, Rich, Democratic

What were the results of the Müller-Lyer Illusion?

• Western societies say Line A (outward-facing “corners”) looks longer

• Subsistence societies (everyone involved in food cultivation) perceived the lines as equal in length

Give an interpretation of the results of the Müller-Lyer Illusion.

Subsistence societies perceived the lines as equal in length as the illusion depends on repeated early exposure to “carpentered corners” (rectangular rooms, houses, doors)

What is the cognitive miser principle in the context of the Müller-Lyer Illusion?

Brains prefer shortcuts and pattern recognition, so in environments full of corners, brains learn to interpret them as depth cues. In environments without such structures, no illusion effect occurs

What is the colour-blind approach?

• “Deep down, we’re all the same”

• Emphasises common human nature and ignores group differences

Give an example of the colour-blind approach.

Using the same treatment manuals or therapy approaches for all clients without adapting for cultural or racial background

Why is the colour-blind approach harmful?

Denies the negative racial experiences of people of colour, rejects their heritage, and invalidates their unique perspectives

What is the Multicultural Approach?

“Cultures are unique and should be valued”

Give an example of a multicultural approach.

Multicultural education

• Educators incorporate diverse cultural perspectives, histories, and experiences into the curriculum to promote understanding and challenge stereotypes

• Ex. teaching about Thanksgiving from both Native American and settler perspectives to highlight the conflict of colonszation

Define ethnocentrism.

The belief/idea that the culture you experience is above other cultures

Give an example of ethnocentrism.

Asking Asian students where they’re from, asking Black students on campus what sport they play, expecting people to speak English

How are humans different from other animals in terms of culture?

Humans live in cultural ecosystems that shape thinking, acting, and interacting

What are the two aspects of humans that make us unique?

Speed and biases

Define speed.

• The way we are able to culturally transmit ideas from one generation to the next with accuracy and complexity

• When humans gain cultural knowledge, it may only take single exposure

What are the three types of biases in imitation?

Prestige bias, similarity bias, and conformist transmission

Define prestige bias and give an example.

Definition: The tendency to imitate those who have skills and are respected by others

Example: Buying something just because a celebrity/influencer has it

List one issue that comes with prestige bias.

It could lead to the copying of bad behaviours due to a general imitating mechanism

Define similarity bias and give an example.

Definition: The tendency to imitate people who are similar to you

Example: A recruiter preferring a job candidate because they went to the same college

Define conformist transmission and give an example.

Definition: The tendency to imitate those who are engaging in behaviours that seem common or popular

Example: Boston attire “going out” attire → black top, blue jeans

When is conformist transmission most prevalent?

When a task is difficult, when people lack confidence in their own abilities, and when there are many options to choose from

What are the three unique styles of cultural learning that humans use?

Mentalising and Perspective Taking, Language, Motivation to Share Experiences and Goals

Define Mentalising and Perspective Taking.

Interest in the mental states, intentions, goals, strategies, and preferences of others (theory of mind)

What are the two types of learning under mentalising and perspective taking?

Imitative Learning and Emulative Learning

Define imitative learning and give an example.

Definition: The learner internalises the model’s goals and behavioural strategies

Example: A baby babbling "mama" and a parent responding with "mama" as a way to learn language

Define emulative learning and give an example.

Definition: The learner focuses on how an object affects the environment; less attention on the model (person)

Example: Chimpanzee with rake (modified strategy to obtain marbles)

Which type of learning is better? And why?

Emulative Learning as it is more efficient in the short term and the learner can independently figure out effective ways of using a tool. However, it does not allow for cumulative cultural learning

Define language, and explain why it is unique to humans.

Allows the communication of ideas without needing visual demonstration

Unique to humans due to the complex grammar and syntax, as well as the rich vocabulary

What are the two types of learning under ‘Motivation to Share Experiences and Goals’?

Collaborative learning and instructed learning

Define collaborative learning and give an example.

Definition: People work together, exchanging knowledge and ideas

Example: Group project

Define instructed learning and give an example.

Definition: Learning from others who guide or teach

Example: A teacher demonstrating how to solve a math problem

Define scaffolding and give an example.

Definition: A teacher or peer breaks down a task, directing attention to the most important

steps so it feels more manageable

Example: Jointly reading a book with a child, where an adult guides the child by explaining vocabulary

What two things are needed for culture to progress and build over generations?

(1) Reliable and faithful social transmission, (2) Imitative learning & sophisticated language

What is the Ratchet Effect?

The process where cultural knowledge doesn’t just stay the same, but grows in complexity and usefulness through small improvements across generations

Example of cumulative cultural evolution?

The evolution of the hammer—improvements accumulated over generations

What accelerates cultural accumulation?

(1) Growing populations (more innovators & teachers, better knowledge preservation), (2) Greater interconnection (ideas spread and mix across groups)

What are cultural worlds?

Human-made ecosystems of accumulated ideas, e.g., schooling, markets, governments, the Internet

What does cumulative cultural learning require?

Advanced cognitive abilities (thinking, memory, problem-solving)

What is Encephalisation Quotient (EQ)?

Brain weight ÷ predicted brain weight for body size

Why are large brains important for culture?

They support complex cognition like language, planning, and abstract thought—essential for cumulative cultural learning

What is the trade-off of having a big brain?

High energy cost, long development, less muscle mass

Why did primates evolve larger brains? (social brain hypothesis)

To handle the cognitive demands of living in complex social groups

What kinds of social challenges required more intelligence?

Power hierarchies, conflict, cooperation, nepotism, reciprocity

What is the neocortex ratio and what does it show?

Neocortex ÷ rest of brain; primates in larger groups have larger neocortex ratios → linked to social learning

What are two main sources of cultural variation?

Ecological variation and geographical variation

Examples of ecological variation?

Climate, food supply, natural resources

Examples of geographical variation?

Isolation, terrain, proximity to other groups

Through what two pathways do ecological/geographical impacts occur?

Proximate causes and distal causes

What are proximate causes? Example?

Immediate, direct effects

Example: If it’s cold, people wear coats. If it’s hot, they wear shorts

What are distal causes? Example?

Early/initial differences that shape cultures indirectly over long periods

Example: Thousands of years ago, some regions had crops easy to domesticate → led to farming → farming supported large populations → those societies developed governments and technologies

What three conditions are required for biological evolution?

(1) Variability within a species, (2) variability linked to reproductive success, (3) heredity

1. Variation – individuals differ in traits

2. Selection – some traits help survival/reproduction

3. Inheritance – those traits get passed on

What is natural selection?

Traits which help individuals survive and reproduce become more common in a population over generations

Example: Bacteria that survive antibiotics pass on their resistance, so over time more of the population becomes resistant

How is cultural evolution similar to biological evolution?

Both involve variation, selection, and transmission, leading to changes that accumulate over generation

How is cultural evolution different from biological evolution?

CTR

1. How information changes

• Biological: Genes copy very accurately, so mistakes (mutations) are rare

• Cultural: Ideas copy less perfectly—people mishear, reinterpret, or even change them on purpose (like a rumor evolving)

2. How information spreads

• Biological: Genes pass mostly vertically (parent → child)

• Cultural: Ideas can spread horizontally (peer → peer, teacher → student, TikTok → millions)

3. Why things spread

• Biological: Traits usually spread only if they help survival or reproduction

• Cultural: Ideas can spread even if they aren’t “adaptive” (memes, fashion fads, harmful habits)

What four conditions make cultural ideas more likely to spread?

CUEMCI

Communicable, useful, evoke emotion, minimally counterintuitive

Why do emotional ideas spread? Example?

Shared emotional reactions strengthen social connection; e.g., contemporary legends like Bigfoot or Bloody Mary.

What are three trends in cultural change over time?

Interconnectedness, individualism, intelligence

What are individualistic cultures? Example?

Cultures that emphasise personal goals over group goals and being distinct

Example: USA → parents encourage kids to move out after graduation

What are collectivistic cultures? Example?

Cultures that emphasise the collective goals of one’s ingroup

Example: Japan → “a nail that stands out gets hammered down”

List the social/economic factors increasing individualism.

1) More pressures of time and money, 2) Increased suburbanisation, 3) More electronic entertainment, 4) Higher socioeconomic status, 5) More secular, 6) Less infectious diseases

What life changes indicate rising individualism globally?

Higher divorce rates, smaller families, more independence in choices (careers, children)

What trend has been observed in IQ scores?

Average IQs have risen 5–25 points over generations (though may plateau now)

What are three proposed reasons for rising intelligence?

(1) Improved nutrition (weak support), (2) world is more complex (jobs/education), (3) increased complexity in pop culture (movies, games, shows)

What is pluralistic ignorance?

A collective misinterpretation where people assume others support a norm, even if they privately don’t

What is the mechanism of pluralistic ignorance?

Individuals comply with the perceived norm → compliance perpetuates the cultural practice

Give 3 examples of pluralistic ignorance.

• Heavy drinking on campus (students think others approve)

• Cheating: seeing one friend cheat may lead you to think others approve, even if they don’t

• Social plans (group goes out though all wanted to stay in)

How does pluralistic ignorance contribute to scapegoating?

In crises (e.g., pandemics), people assume others blame minorities, so they join in

How is the bystander effect related to pluralistic ignorance?

People assume others will act (e.g., call 911), so no one does

Why is studying social phenomena difficult?

WEIRD samples are not representative, people are unaware of influences, self-reports are unreliable

How do researchers decide which cultures to study?

Depends on question:

• If testing if X affects Y → study cultures that vary on X

• If testing universality of X → study maximally different cultures

What is methodological equivalence?

Ensuring participants interpret questions/situations similarly across cultures; may require different methods for different cultures

What is generalisability? Example?

How far the results of a study can be applied to people outside the specific sample tested

Limits: findings from students ≠ whole populations

Example: College students in Brazil vs. USA

What is power in cross-cultural research?

Ability to detect an effect if it exists

High power = easier to see real differences (esp. across very different cultures)

What is back-translation?

One translator converts language A → B; another converts back B → A

Discrepancies are resolved to refine wording

What is a response bias?

Tendency that distorts survey answers

What is socially desirable responding? Example?

Participants give answers that seem socially acceptable rather than honest

Example: “How racist are you, 1–7?”) → strong bias

Most respondents choose “1” (least racist) to appear socially acceptable

What are moderacy bias and extremity bias?

Moderacy bias = choosing midpoints; extremity bias = choosing extreme responses

What is acquiescence bias, and ways to counteract?

Agreeing with most statements regardless of content

Ways to counteract: Attention checks & Reverse coding

What is the reference group effect?

Judgments depend on who one compares themselves to (e.g., “I’m tall” with kids vs. adults)

What are ways to counteract the reference group effect?

• Asking specific questions about specific situations

• Quantitative responses (e.g., frequencies of specific behaviour)

• Behavioural or psychological measures 

What are the two ways to counteract response biases?

Forced-choice questions and Standardisation

Explain standardisation.

Converts raw scores into standardised scores (z-scores)

• Person’s average score → set to 0

• Scores above average → positive z-scores

• Scores below average → negative z-scores

Why are cultural studies quasi-experiments?

No random assignment to cultures; groups are preexisting

What is replication?

Repeating studies to see if results hold

What are the two main reasons for nonreplication?

1) The original finding was not reliable, and 2) The replication design was problematic

What are the steps to situation sampling?

Step 1: each culture lists situations for a phenomenon

Step 2: participants evaluate situations across cultures

Compares both responses and types of experiences

Class Example: List of things that’d scare you