BIOL 2160 Exam 3(import)

Gluconeogenesis

Process in which new glucose molecules are synthesized from proteins and fats. Carried out by liver.

Metabolic Rate

The amount of energy (heat+work) released per unit time

Muscular activity, age, gender, body surface area, environmental temperature

What is your metabolic rate influenced by? (5 things)

Mechanical work

Type of work involving the use of proteins to generate movement (muscles, cilia)

Chemical work

Type of work involving the formation of chemical bonds (anabolism)

Transport work

Type of work involving the moving of molecules across membranes (active transport, endo/exocytosis)

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

The metabolic rate of a person who is awake, lying down, physically/mentally relaxed, and fasted for 12 hours. Roughly equal to the rate of oxygen consumption

Energy stored

Energy input-energy output\=?

Energy output

Work performed+heat released\=?

Positive energy balance

Energy input\>energy output

Negative energy balance

Energy input

Absorptive state

3-4 hours following a meal, positive energy balance, energy stored

Postabsorptive state

between meals, negative energy balance, energy mobilized. Glucose sparing

Adipocytes/Adipose tissue

Cells that store fat (triglycerides). 20-30% body weight (normal). 75-80% total energy reserves

insulin, glucagon, epinephrine

Transitions between absorptive and post-absorptive states are regulated primarily by...(3 things)

Insulin

Promotes synthesis of energy storage molecules. Anabolic hormone. Increased release during absorptive state. Decrease during post-absorptive. Produced by beta cells in islets of Langerhans pancreas

Glucagon

Antagonist to insulin. Catabolic hormone. Decreased release during absorptive state. Increased during post-absorptive. Produced by alpha cells in pancreatic islets of Langerhans

Hyperglycemia

Fasting blood glucose \>140mg/dL, indicative of diabetes mellitus

Hypoglycemia

Fasting blood glucose

Epinephrine

sympathetic nervous system product. suppresses insulin, stimulates glucagon. promotes post-absorptive processes. primarily important during stress reactions, energy for flight/fight

Type 1

Type of Diabetes that is insulin-dependent. juvenile onset, 5-10%

Type 2

Type of Diabetes that is insulin-independent, adult onset, 90-95%

Ketoacidosis, Hyperosmolar (non-ketotic) coma, Hypoglycemic coma

Acute effects of diabetes (3 things)

Ketoacidosis

decrease in blood pH due to buildup of acidic ketones. Direct result of hyperglycemia

increased

Hyperglycemia causes \______ urine output

Hyperosmolar (non-Ketotic) coma

coma caused by extreme hyperglycemia leading to increased blood osmolarity

Hypoglycemic coma

come caused by an accidental insulin overdose as part of diabetes treatment

Efferents

Signals AWAY from the brain

Somatic

Voluntary efferent signals, motor neurons to skeletal muscle

Autonomic

Involuntary efferent signals

Sympathetic

Autonomic efferent signals, neruons to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, glands

Parasympathetic

Autonomic efferent signals, enteric nervous system (neurons to GI tract)

Afferents

Signals TO the brain

Somatic senses

Afferent signals (skin, muscles, joint -pain)

Special senses

Afferent signals (hearing, vision, equilibrium, smell, taste)

Visceral senses

Afferent signals (internal - stomach fullness, blood pressure, pH)

Afferents, Interneurons, Efferents

Three types of Neurons

CNS

cell bodies often grouped in nuclei axons grouped in bundles or comissures (neuronal anatomy)

PNS

cell bodies often grouped in ganglia axons grouped together in nerves (neruonal anatomy)

Glial cells

non-neuronal system cells. Provide support (structural, chemical) to neurons. 90% of all cells in nervous system

Astrocytes

Type of glial cell (development, maintenance of extracellular environment)Ep

Ependymal

type of glial cell (lining of ventricles)

Microglia

type of glial cell (immune response)

Oligodendrocytes

type of glial cell (myelin for CNS)

Schwann cells

type of glial cell (myelin for PNS)

-70mV

Resting membrane potential of most cells (mV)

Concentration gradients, Relative permeability

2 things that determine the resting membrane potential

K+

most permeable ion under resting conditions

ionic current

the actual movement of ions across the membrane

graded potentials

small electrical signals (Sub-threshold), can be different sized, get smaller in magnitude with distance traveled

action potentials

larger electrical signals (above threshold), all the exact same size, does not increase with distance traveled

EPSP (Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential)

a depolarization that brings the post-synaptic cell closer to threshold

IPSP (Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potential)

a hyperpolarization that pushes the post-synaptic potential further from the threshold

Temporal Summation

one cell stimulates another cell twice before the first response has had a chance to die down, two or more sub-threshold stimuli add up to allow the post-synaptic cell to reach threshold

Spatial summation

two or more cells send simultaneous sub-threshold stimuli to a cell that add up to get the post-synaptic cell above threshold

Phase 1

Action potential phase in which Na+ channel activation gates open

Phase 2

Action potential phase in which Na+ channel inactivation closes. K+ channel activation gates open

Phase 3

Action potential phase in which K+ channel activation gates close (Na+ channel inactivation gates open. Na+ channel activation gates close)

Absolute refractory period

period of time following action potential in which no stimulus of any strength can generate another action potential

Relative refractory period

period of time following action potential in which another action potential can be generated, but a much stronger stimulus must be used

Electrical synapses

gap junctions, ions and second messengers flow directly from one cell to another, can be bidirectional, act to synchronize electrical activity

Chemical synapses

send chemicals (neurotransmitters) across synaptic cleft, unidirectional

Ionotropic

type of postsynaptic response that is mediated by channel-linked receptors, fast

Metabotropic

type of postsynaptic response that is mediated by G-protein coupled receptors, slow

Excitatory synapses

Synapses in which PSP is depolarizing, brings membrane potential closer to AP threshold

Inhibitory synapes

synapses in which PSP brings membrane potential away from AP threshold

LTP: Long-Term Potentation

process by which cells become more efficient at communication via synaptic transmission

Nondeclaritive (implicit)

memory of simple skills, how to do things

Declarative (explicit)

memory of things that can be verbalized

Electoencephalogram (EEG)

brain waves collected by external electrodes on the scalp

Broca's aphasia

involves slow, poorly articulated speech, there is no impairment in understanding, controls motor aspects of speech

Wernicke's Aphasia

involves production of rapid speech with no meaning, language (spoken and written) comprehension is destoryed, controls understanding of words

Glycogenolysis

Which process will result in a decrease in glycogen levels

Glycolysis

The process of gluconeogenesis is the exact opposite of which process

Positive

When energy input exceeds energy output, the body is in a state of \_____ energy balance

Post-absorptive

In which state do most cells metabolize proteins and fats

Insulin

which hormone causes the body to transition to the absorptive state

Hypoglycemia

A person with damaged alpha cells will most likely have which condition

insulin

which hormone decreases glycogenolysis

decrease

increasing insulin levels will \_____ urine output

hypoglycemic coma

An overdose of insulin may result in which condition

efferent

smooth muscle will be controlled by the brain through \_____ fibers

ganglia

cell bodies in the PNS are called

ependymal cells

which type of glial cell produces cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

K+

which ion has more 'leak' channels

smaller

as the membrane potential approaches the equilibrium potential farther from threshold would be...

hyperpolarization

a post-synaptic potential that moves the membrane potential farther from threshold would be......

1

temporal summatin involves how many pre-synaptic inputs

Ek

during the falling phase of an actoin potential, the membrane potential moves toward.....

closed

at rest, the activation gate for most voltage-gated Na+ channels is

already open OR inactivated

during the absolute refractory period, all voltage-gated Na+ channels are

more frequent

a larger stimulus will result in \_____ \_____ action potentials

unidirectional

chemical synapses are

Ca++

which ion is directly responsible for neurotransmitter release at a synapse

EPSP

binding of acetylcholine to nicotinic recpetors will produce

muscarinic

which type of receptors are blocked by atropine

Cl-

inhibitory synapses in the PNS use which ion

nitric oxide

which molecule results in longer-lasting neurotransmitter release during LTP

nondeclaritive

which type of memory is NOT usually affected in amnesia patients

caffeine

which of these is an adenosine receptor antagonist