Political Psychology Flashcards

Rational Choice Theory

The belief that we make decisions that are self-interested. We have preferences about the world and we calculate how we can maximise these with the tools we have to achieve our favoured outcome. However, as we face constraints we must decide what we are willing to sacrifice.

Rational Choice Theory - Downs Theory

Anthony Downs (1957) argued that rational voters would evaluate each party platform and identify which was closest to their ideal point.

Collective Action Problem and RCT

Climate change - people are aware of the existential threat yet they do not give up technology (high carbon production) or reduce meat intake. Why should I give up these commodities if I cannot guarantee that everyone else is doing the same?

Game Theory

Links to RCT. Looking at behaviours and decisions of competitors when involved in strategic situations e.g Prisoners Dilemma.

What is the Prisoners Dilemma?

An example of game theory. Involves two rational actors who can either cooperate for mutual benefit or betray their partner for individual gain. The dilemma arises from the fact that while defecting is rational for each agent, cooperation yields a higher payoff for each. Acting in own self-interest does not produce the optimal outcome.

Instrumental Rationality

A decision-making process where individuals choose the most effective means to achieve their goals, based on available information and resources. We cannot often choose something directly so this is the most effective way. Example: expressive and tactical voting.

Complete preferences

An individual is always able to make a choice.

Transitive preferences

A situation where if an individual prefers option A to B and prefers B to C, then they must also prefer A to C, ensuring consistent decision-making. Choices with logical order.

Bounded rationality

A concept that suggests individuals are limited in their decision-making capabilities due to cognitive constraints and the information available, leading to satisfactory rather than optimal choices. Physiological limits include that memory is reconstructive, not photographic.

What is system 1 thinking?

A cognitive process that is fast, automatic, and often driven by emotions, allowing for quick judgments and decisions without extensive deliberation. It uses very little energy.

What is system 2 thinking?

A cognitive process that is slower, more deliberate, and analytical, requiring more mental effort and resources for complex decision-making and problem-solving.

What is a heuristic?

A mental shortcut that allows individuals to make decisions and solve problems quickly by simplifying complex information, often based on previous experiences. We satisfice rather than optimise - Herbert Simon (1955).

Confirmation bias

We give more weight to evidence that supports what we already believe in and we ignore evidence that contradicts it.

Proportionality bias

Tendency to assume big events have big causes - linkage to conspiracy theories.

Social Identity Theory

Membership of different groups are central to how we understand ourselves. We have a powerful and inherent urge to be a part of a group.

Rise of super identities

Conflict of groups is heightened when people are sorted into super-identities. It means that we do not just dislike a different group, but we physically hate them as they are so different to our group. Increased by the ‘bubbling’ effect of social media (Mason, 2018). We are becoming more similar, meaning it is easier to hate one another. Example of democrats and republicans.

Socially Motivated Reasoning

People often reason from their beliefs. We use our emotions to receive and understand new information. We filter information based on our prior beliefs.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Relates to the mental discomfort. People will choose the easiest option and we will change our beliefs so that they correspond with our actions.

Effects of motivated reasoning

Belief persistence, counter arguing and attitude polarisation.

Hot cognition

Produce a running tally and log the affective tag that has occurred at that moment.

Affective Polarisation

Affective = emotion. How an individual feels positively about their own in-group, and negatively towards the out group.

Zaller’s RAS model (1992)

Public forms considerations based on what is presented in the mass media by elites.

Receive - those who are more attentive are more likely to encounter political messages.

Accept - then they can decide whether to accept it or not based on their existing values.

Sampled - mixed opinions sampled from the top of their mind. Can draw form a “sample” of considerations.

Priming

The media primes us to focus on a few complex stories. It is about what information is shared, not how it is packaged. If the media focuses on the economy, it will probably be taken into consideration during voting and choosing a political candidate.

Framing

Superficial features of a message. It refers to how it is presented and structured to influence how audiences perceive and interpret information. Links to prospect theory: dramatic effects of people’s willingness to take risks.

Prospect Theory

The way a message might subtly shift the focus to that of losses and gains.

Episodic (Iyengar 1991)

Specific individuals, events or cases.

Thematic (Iyengar 1991)

In a broader context.

Why are episodic and thematic media frames important?

They can powerfully change public opinion. It can change responsibility from individuals to that at a systematic level.

Why do people believe in conspiracy theories?

Epistemic motives - broad explanations that help to preserve beliefs in the face of uncertainty.

Existential - opportunity to reject official narratives.

Social - people want to maintain positive self-image.

Confirmation bias and proportionality bias links to this.