U1 BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOR

Adoption studies

Research method that examines the similarities between adopted children and their biological and adoptive parents.

Environmental factors

External influences that can affect an individual's development and behavior.

Eugenics

The science of improving a human population by controlled breeding to increase the occurrence of desirable heritable characteristics.

Evolutionary perspective

A theoretical approach that examines psychological traits as evolved adaptations.

Family studies

Research method that assesses the degree of similarity between family members.

Genetic predisposition

An increased likelihood of developing a particular disease based on a person's genetic makeup.

Heredity

The passing of traits from parents to offspring through genes.

Natural selection

The process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.

Nature

The influence of genetic inheritance on behavior and traits.

Nurture

The influence of environmental factors on behavior and traits.

Traits

Characteristics or qualities that can be inherited or influenced by the environment.

Twin studies

Research method that compares the similarities between identical and fraternal twins.

Autonomic nervous system

Part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions.

Brain

The organ that serves as the control center of the nervous system.

Central nervous system (CNS)

The part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

Parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)

Part of the autonomic nervous system that conserves energy and restores the body to a calm state.

Somatic nervous system

Part of the peripheral nervous system associated with the voluntary control of body movements.

Spinal cord

The bundle of nerves that runs down the back and transmits signals between the brain and the body.

Sympathetic nervous system

Part of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for stressful or emergency situations.

Absolute Refractory Period

The time during which a neuron cannot fire again after an action potential.

Addiction

A chronic condition characterized by compulsive drug seeking and use despite harmful consequences.

Agonist

A substance that activates a receptor to produce a biological response.

All or nothing principal

The principle that a neuron either fires completely or not at all.

Antagonist

A substance that blocks or dampens the biological response of an agonist.

Depolarization

The process during the action potential when sodium ions enter the neuron, making it more positive.

Depressants

Substances that reduce the activity of the central nervous system.

Glial cells

Supportive cells in the nervous system that assist neurons.

Hallucinogens

Substances that cause perceptual distortions and altered states of consciousness.

Adrenaline

A hormone released in response to stress, increasing heart rate and energy.

Ghrelin

A hormone that stimulates appetite and plays a role in energy balance.

Leptin

A hormone that helps to regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger.

Melatonin

A hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles.

Oxytocin

A hormone associated with social bonding and reproduction.

Interneurons

Neurons that connect other neurons within the central nervous system.

Motor (efferent) neurons

Neurons that carry signals away from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.

Multiple sclerosis

A disease that affects the central nervous system, leading to muscle weakness and coordination issues.

Myasthenia gravis

An autoimmune disorder that leads to weakness in the skeletal muscles.

Neurons

The basic building blocks of the nervous system that transmit information.

Neurotransmitter

Chemicals that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron to another.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement and memory.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with pleasure and reward.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers.

Excitatory

Describes neurotransmitters that increase the likelihood of a neuron firing.

GABA

An inhibitory neurotransmitter that reduces neuronal excitability.

Glutamate

The most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Inhibitory

Describes neurotransmitters that decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal and alertness.

Relative Refractory Period

The time following an action potential during which a neuron is less responsive to stimuli.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that contributes to feelings of well-being and happiness.

Substance P.

A neuropeptide involved in the transmission of pain.

Opioids

A class of drugs that act on opioid receptors to produce pain relief.

Psychoactive drugs

Substances that alter perception, mood, or consciousness.

Reflex arc

The neural pathway that mediates a reflex action.

Refractory period

The time during which a neuron cannot respond to a second stimulus.

Resting potential

The electrical potential of a neuron when it is not firing.

Reuptake inhibitors

Drugs that prevent the reabsorption of neurotransmitters, increasing their availability.

Sensory (afferent) neurons

Neurons that carry signals from sensory receptors to the central nervous system.

Stimulants

Substances that increase the activity of the central nervous system.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

Tolerance

A reduced response to a drug after repeated use.

Withdrawal

Symptoms that occur when a person stops using a substance they are dependent on.

Brain plasticity

The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections.

Brainstem

The part of the brain that connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls basic life functions.

Broca's area

A region of the frontal lobe associated with speech production.

Cerebellum

The part of the brain that coordinates voluntary movements and balance.

Cerebral cortex

The outer layer of the brain involved in complex functions like thought and action.

EEG

A test that detects electrical activity in the brain.

fMRI

A technique that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.

Lesioning

The process of damaging a specific area of the brain to study its function.

Limbic system

A set of structures in the brain that deal with emotions and memory.

Amygdala

An almond-shaped structure in the brain involved in emotion regulation.

Corpus callosum

The bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

Cortical lobes

The four main areas of the cerebral cortex: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes.

Frontal lobe

The part of the brain associated with reasoning, planning, and problem-solving.

Occipital lobe

The region of the brain responsible for visual processing.

Parietal lobe

The part of the brain that processes sensory information.

Somatic sensory cortex

The area of the brain that processes sensory input from the body.

Temporal lobe

The region of the brain involved in processing auditory information and memory.

Hippocampus

A brain structure involved in the formation of memories.

Hypothalamus

A brain region that controls various autonomic functions and regulates hormones.

Motor cortex

The area of the brain responsible for planning and executing voluntary movements.

Pituitary gland

The gland that regulates various hormonal functions in the body.

Prefrontal cortex

The part of the frontal lobe involved in complex cognitive behavior and decision making.

Thalamus

The brain structure that relays sensory information to the cerebral cortex.

Medulla

The part of the brainstem that controls vital functions such as breathing and heart rate.

Reticular formation

A network of neurons that regulates wakefulness and sleep-wake transitions.

Split brain research

Studies that examine the effects of severing the corpus callosum on behavior and cognition.

Wernicke's Area

A region of the brain associated with language comprehension.

Activation-synthesis theory

A theory that suggests dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity.

Circadian rhythm

The natural cycle of physical, mental, and behavioral changes that follow a 24-hour cycle.

Consciousness

The state of being aware of and able to think about one's own existence and surroundings.

Dreaming

A state of consciousness characterized by sensory, cognitive, and emotional experiences during sleep.

Hypnagogic sensations

Vivid sensory phenomena that occur during the transition from wakefulness to sleep.

Memory consolidation theory

The theory that sleep plays a critical role in the consolidation of memories.

NREM 1

The lightest stage of sleep, where one can be easily awakened.

NREM 2

A stage of sleep characterized by sleep spindles and K-complexes.

NREM 3 & 4

Stages of deep sleep where the body repairs and regenerates tissues.

REM Rebound

The phenomenon where a person experiences increased REM sleep after being deprived of it.

REM sleep

A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movement and vivid dreaming.

Memory Restoration theory

The theory that sleep restores and rejuvenates the brain and body.