Matter and Bonding Flashcards

Flashcards based on lecture notes about Matter and Bonding, including the periodic table, atomic theory, chemical bonding, nomenclature, chemical reactions, stoichiometry, solutions, gas laws, and related calculations.

Who proposed the Law of Triads and what did it state?

Johann Dobereiner in 1817 proposed that elements with similar properties could be grouped in threes and the atomic weight of the middle element was approximately the average of the other two.

Who proposed the Law of Octaves and what did it state?

John Newlands in 1864 proposed that when elements were arranged by increasing atomic weight, every eighth element had similar properties.

Who created the first widely accepted Periodic Table and how was it organized?

Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869 arranged elements by increasing atomic weight, left gaps for undiscovered elements, and predicted their properties which were later proven accurate.

Who first proposed the concept of atoms?

Democritus proposed that all matter is made of small, indivisible particles called atoms.

Who rejected the atomic theory and what did he believe matter was composed of?

Aristotle rejected Democritus’s atomic theory and believed that matter was made of four elements: earth, water, air, and fire.

Who revived the atomic theory with scientific evidence and what were the main points of his theory?

John Dalton revived the idea of atoms with scientific evidence and proposed the Atomic Theory: All matter is made of atoms, atoms of the same element are identical, atoms combine in whole-number ratios, and atoms cannot be created or destroyed in chemical reactions.

Who discovered the electron and what model did he propose?

J.J. Thomson discovered the electron using cathode ray experiments and proposed the Plum Pudding Model.

Who discovered the nucleus and how did he describe the atom's structure?

Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus through the gold foil experiment and proposed a model with electrons orbiting the nucleus randomly.

Who introduced energy levels to the atomic model and how did this improve it?

Niels Bohr improved Rutherford’s model by introducing energy levels, proposing that electrons orbit the nucleus in fixed paths or shells.

What is AXZ Notation used for, and what do A, X, and Z represent?

AXZ Notation represents atoms, especially isotopes, and provides information about atomic structure where X = Chemical symbol, A = Mass number, Z = Atomic number.

What are isotopes?

Isotopes are atoms of the same element (same Z) but with different mass numbers (different A), meaning they have different numbers of neutrons.

What is Atomic Mass?

Atomic Mass is the weighted average of all naturally occurring isotopes of an element.

How is Average Atomic Mass calculated?

Average Atomic Mass is the weighted average of the atomic masses of all the naturally occurring isotopes of an element, calculated by multiplying the mass of isotopes by their abundance.

What are radioisotopes?

Radioisotopes are unstable isotopes of elements that emit radiation as they decay into more stable forms.

What is alpha decay?

Alpha decay releases 2 protons and 2 neutrons (alpha particle) with low penetration.

What is beta decay?

Beta decay involves a neutron changing into a proton, emitting an electron (beta particle) with medium penetration.

What is gamma decay?

Gamma decay emits high-energy rays without changing the nucleus, and has high penetration.

What is fission?

Fission is when a heavy nucleus splits into smaller nuclei, releasing energy.

What is fusion?

Fusion is when two light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing large amounts of energy.

What do half-life calculations determine?

Half-life is the time required for half of a radioactive substance to decay, and can be calculated using the formula N0= N(2)-t/h.

What is the visible spectrum? What is Continuous Spectrum?

The Visible Spectrum is range of light wavelengths visible to the human eye, showing colours from violet to red. Continuous Spectrum is a smooth, uninterrupted range of colours produced by a hot, dense source.

What is Line Spectrum? What are Flame Tests?

Line Spectrum is specific colored lines at certain wavelengths produced by excited atoms emitting light. Flame Tests: A method to identify elements by the characteristic colour they emit when heated in a flame, related to their line spectra.

What is ionization energy and what is its trend in the periodic table?

Ionization Energy is the energy required to remove an electron from a neutral atom, increasing across a period and decreasing down a group.

What is electron affinity and what is its trend in the periodic table?

Electron Affinity is the energy change when an atom gains an electron, generally becoming more negative across a period.

What is atomic radii and what is its trend in the periodic table?

Atomic Radii is the distance from the nucleus to the outermost electron cloud, decreasing across a period and increasing down a group.

What is electronegativity and what is its trend in the periodic table?

Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract and hold electrons in a bond, increasing across a period and decreasing down a group.

What is covalent bonding?

Covalent Bonding occurs when atoms share pairs of electrons, typically between nonmetal atoms.

What is ionic bonding?

Ionic Bonding occurs when one atom donates electrons to another, creating ions, typically between metals and nonmetals.

What are Electron Dot Diagrams (Lewis Dot Structures)?

Electron Dot Diagrams (Lewis Dot Structures) visually represent valence electrons as dots around an element’s symbol.

How are ionic compound names formatted?

Ionic Compounds Naming uses the format [Metal Name] + [Nonmetal Root + -ide] for monovalent metals and [Metal Name] + (Roman numeral for charge) + [Nonmetal Root + -ide] for multivalent metals.

How are molecules compound names formatted?

Molecular Compounds Naming uses Greek prefixes to indicate the number of atoms, with the format [Prefix + First Element] + [Prefix + Second Element + -ide].

What is involved in Balancing Chemical Equations?

Balancing Chemical Equations involves adjusting coefficients to ensure the same number of atoms of each element on both sides.

What does the Law of Conservation of Mass state?

The Law of Conservation of Mass states that mass cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction, and the total mass of reactants equals the total mass of products.

What is a Synthesis (Combination) Reaction?

A Synthesis (Combination) Reaction occurs when two or more reactants combine to form one product (A + B → AB).

What is a Decomposition Reaction?

A Decomposition Reaction occurs when one compound breaks down into two or more simpler substances (AB → A + B).

What is a Single Replacement (Displacement) Reaction?

A Single Replacement (Displacement) Reaction occurs when one element replaces another in a compound (A + BC → AC + B).

What is a Double Replacement Reaction?

A Double Replacement Reaction occurs when two compounds exchange ions to form new compounds (AB + CD → AD + CB).

What is a Combustion Reaction?

A Combustion Reaction occurs when a substance reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water (Hydrocarbon + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O).

How many particles are there in a Mole?

A mole is 6.022 × 10²³ particles (atoms, molecules, ions, etc.).

What is Molar Mass?

Molar mass is the mass of 1 mole of a substance, found by adding up the atomic masses of all atoms in a formula and has units of grams per mole (g/mol).

How is Percent Composition calculated?

Percent Composition calculate by % element = (mass of element / total mass of compound) × 100.

What's the definition of Empirical Formula?

Empirical Formula (EFs) is the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound.

How do you calculate Molecular Formula?

Molecular Formula can is obtained using the formula: Molecular Formula = (Empirical Formula) × z. z = Molar mass of compound divided by Molar mass of empirical formula.

What's the definition of Mole Ratios?

Mole Ratios is the ratio between the amounts (in moles) of reactants and products in a balanced chemical equation.

What's the definition of Limiting Reagents?

Limiting Reagents is the reactant that is used up first and limits how much product is formed.

What are the formulas for %Yield and % Error

% Yield formula=% Yield formula: (actual yield/theoretical yield) x 100 % Error formula: (measured value - true value/true value) x 100 OR 100- % yield

What are Solutions, Solutes, and Solvents?

A Solution is a uniform mixture of two or more substances, with a Solute being the substance that is dissolved and a Solvent being the substance that dissolves the solute.

What's the difference Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Mixtures?

Homogeneous Mixture have a uniform composition throughout, while Heterogeneous Mixture have visibly different parts or phases.

What are Aqueous Solutions, Electrolytes, and Non-electrolytes?

Aqueous Solutions have water as the solvent, Electrolytes produce solutions that conduct electricity, and Non-electrolytes do not conduct electricity.

What are Acids and Bases?

An Acid increases H⁺ ions in solution and has a pH less than 7, while a Base increases OH⁻ ions and has a pH greater than 7.

What's Neutral pH? What's the difference between Concentrate and Dilute solutions?

A Neutral pH is 7. Concentrate is the solution holding a large portion of solute compared to solvent, while Dilute solutions have a small amount of solute compared to the solvent.

What's the definition of Solubility, Saturated and Unsaturated Solutions?

Solubility is the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a solvent, Saturated solutions contain the maximum amount of dissolved solute, and Unsaturated solutions contain less solute than they can hold.

What are Supersaturated Solutions . What does Miscible mean? What does Immiscible Mean?

Supersaturated solutions temporarily hold more solute than they normally can, Miscible liquids mix completely, and Immiscible liquids do not mix.

What is the difference between Inter and Intra molecular bonding?

Intramolecular bonding occurs within a molecule, while Intermolecular bonding occurs between molecules.

What dictates the likelihood of of Polar Molecules dissolving in a particular substance?

Polar molecules have an uneven distribution of charge, and "like dissolves like"—polar molecules dissolve in polar solvents.

Explain the hydrogen bonds affect on solubility.

Hydrogen bonding is a strong intermolecular force between hydrogen and electronegative atoms, increasing solubility in polar solvents.

What is the Total Ionic Equation? What is the Net Ionic Equation?

Total Ionic Equation shows all soluble ionic compounds dissociated into ions, and Net Ionic Equation includes only the ions directly involved in precipitate formation.

Explain the difference between Arrhenius and Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases?

Arrhenius acids increase H⁺ ions in water, Arrhenius bases increase OH⁻ ions. Bronsted-Lowry acids donate a proton (H⁺), while Bronsted-Lowry bases accept a proton (H⁺).

What does the Kinetic Molecular Theory explain?

The Kinetic Molecular Theory explains gas behaviour based on particles in constant, random motion with negligible volume and no intermolecular forces.

What is Boyle's Law?

Boyle’s Law: Pressure and volume are inversely proportional at constant temperature (𝑃1𝑉1 = 𝑃2𝑉2).

What is Charles’s Law?

Charles’s Law: Volume and temperature (in Kelvin) are directly proportional at constant pressure (𝑉1/𝑇1 = 𝑉2/𝑇2).

What is Gay-Lussac’s Law?

Gay-Lussac’s Law: Pressure and temperature (in Kelvin) are directly proportional at constant volume (𝑃1/𝑇1 = 𝑃2/𝑇2).

What is the Idela Gas Law?

Ideal Gas Law: Combines Boyle’s, Charles’s, and Gay-Lussac’s laws into one equation: 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇.