Eduqas B GCSE Geography: Changing Places, Changing Economies

Define a city, megacity, and global city.

• City: A large urban settlement

• Megacity: A city which has a population of over 10 million

• Global city: One which is well connected by the process of globalisation.

Describe and explain the distribution of megacities and how this has changed over time.

• The number of megacities has increased over time- in 1950, there were only two, and today there are at least 33

• Most of these are in LIDCs and emerging and developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America

What is urban growth like in developed countries?

• These countries show the highest levels of urbanisation

• Rates of urbanisation are lower because a high percentage of the population already live in towns and cities

• In some developed countries, rates of urbanisation may start to decrease due to counter-urbanisation

What is urban growth like in developing countries?

• These countries have the lowest levels of urbanisation

• High rates of urbanisation occur in developing countries because:

  • Most new economic development is concentrated in the big cities

  • Rural-urban migration

  • Natural increase

What are the two main causes of urban growth?

• Natural increase- the birth rate surpassing the death rate

• Rural-urban migration- people moving out of rural areas into urban areas

What are some push factors (from rural areas)?

• Wars and civil strikes

• Agricultural problems

• Poor social provisions- healthcare, education, culture

• Poor employment prospects

What are some pull factors (from urban areas)?

• Better social provisions- healthcare, education, culture

• Better employment prospects

• Better quality of life

How are rural areas positively impacted by rural-urban migration?

• More land per person

• More resources per person

• Money may be sent home by migrants

How are rural areas negatively impacted by rural-urban migration?

• Birth rate will decrease and death rate increase

• Fewer economically active people in the community

• Families are split up

How are urban areas positively impacted by rural-urban migration?

• Increased economic activity

• Increase in cultural wealth

• More knowledge and skills in the community

How are urban areas negatively impacted by rural-urban migration?

• Pressure on housing availability

• Tensions between existing community and immigrants

• Pressure on social provisions such as healthcare and education

Why is Mumbai significant?

• One of the world’s most important financial centres

• Home of Bollywood- a film industry whose films are known worldwide

• A trade link between India and Europe

How has Mumbai grown?

1. Rural-urban migration- the mechanisation of farming has reduced the number of jobs available in rural areas but the industrialisation of Mumbai, creating more jobs, has meant that over 1000 migrants arrive in Mumbai daily

2. Natural increase- many migrants are of fertile age, it is common to have a large family in India; the birth rate is 20.1 per 1000

3. Education- there are more opportunities in Mumbai than in other areas of India. Many students move for education and do not come home.

How has Mumbai’s growth created opportunities?

• Education- Mumbai is home to a world-renowned university and lots of primaries and secondaries. The literacy rate is 89.7%

• Healthcare- Mumbai has more hospitals than any other Indian city, and is very affordable and so is accessible to local people

• Economy- Mumbai accounts for 6% of India’s GDP and 40% of its foreign trade

How has Mumbai’s growth created challenges?

• Poor Housing: It is estimated that 72% of Mumbai’s population is living in slums- overcrowded, unsanitary living spaces

• Air Pollution: there are over 22 million vehicles registered in Mumbai and so there are lots of nitrous oxides and particulates- causing respiratory illnesses

• Poor transport services: Roads are often in bad condition and trains are overcrowded- in 2016, an average of 8 people a day died on the trains

What is life in Dharavi like?

• Strong sense of community

• Many business opportunities

• Low rent

• Access to social provisions such as education

How does recycling in Dharavi work?

• 8,000 tonnes of waste is generated in the city each day

• 80% of Mumbai’s waste is recycled- 4x the average rate of the UK

• Some litter is repurposed as building material to house Dharavi’s inhabitants and some is sold to to scrap dealers

What are the economic positives to Vision Mumbai?

• Redevelopment will attract developers and businesses

• Fewer infections mean more people are economically active

• More taxes can be collected for economic investment for the city

What are the environmental positives to Vision Mumbai?

• People no longer have to live among waste- more toilets are built as well as a sewage network

• Natural environment is less contaminated by human waste and industry pollutants

• Encouraged movement out of the city will reduce congestion and air pollution

What are the social benefits to Vision Mumbai?

• Less crowded and more affordable housing is provided to residents of Mumbai

• Better quality of life due to better sanitation and access to clean water

• Less illness and death

Why is London significant?

• London has global reach through its major airports Heathrow and Gatwick

• It is of major economic importance due to the City of London and the Stock Exchange.

• Located on the River Thames which has helped its trade links

How has London grown?

1. Rural-urban migration- in the 1800s, many farmers flocked to London to escape their farming lifestyle and find industrial jobs

2. Natural increase- post-WW2, there was a massive baby boom

3. EU Migration- lots of Eastern European countries joined the EU in 2004, and can therefore move to other EU countries whenever they wish

How has London’s growth provided opportunities?

• Education- London has lots of excellent schools- both public and private- that exceed national averages

• Culture- London is home to the West End theatre and many major stadiums for music and sports

• Diversity- there is a range of backgrounds represented in London- each with their own foods and cultures

How has London’s growth created challenges?

• Crime- knife and gun crime has increased massively

• Housing- the quality of council housing has decreased and it is more difficult to find a house let alone afford one

• Employment- there is lots of competition due to a large population which means lots of informal and illegal jobs are available and there are many homeless people

What are the New Garden Cities?

• In 2014, the UK government announced the development of three new garden cities

• These towns will feature high quality homes, lots of green space and access to local jobs and services

What solutions are there to improve urban sustainability in London?

• Water conservation - dual flush toilets in businesses and homes, collecting rainwater for gardens and the use of water meters in properties

• Energy conservation- insulating businesses and homes, use of double and triple glazing in buildings, use of low-energy lighting and appliances

• Waste recycling- recycling of household and commercial waste, adopting a 'reduce, reuse, recycle' policy, using 'grey' water to flush toilets in public buildings

• Creating green spaces- increasing the number of parks and planting more trees

What sustainable transport schemes are in place?

• Bike sharing scheme- 'Boris Bikes' have encouraged many people to cycle, reducing traffic congestion.

• London Underground- encouraged more people to use public transport.

• Oyster Card- allows people to use buses, trains and tubes quickly and efficiently, making it more appealing

• Congestion Charging Zone - this has discouraged people from driving their own vehicles in central London.

What are the environmental positives of BedZed?

• Low energy lighting and appliances

• Solar panels

• Rain water is collected to flush toilets

• Triple glazed windows provide insulation

• Wind cowls ventilate buildings

What are the economic positives of BedZed?

• Less electricity needs to be used in heat insulation

• Less electricity needs to be used in ventilation

• Encouraged use of public transport or bikes are cheaper

What are the social positives of BedZed?

• Lots of communal spaces- parks, carsharing etc

• Encouraged public transport requires social interaction

• Mix of housing so there are affordable options- 25% is social, 25% rental and 50% private

What is suburbanisation?

• This is where the suburbs on the outer edge of the settlement grow outwards as new houses and services are built to accommodate more people.

• This type of expansion sees the settlement grow at the expense of surrounding green land.

What are the consequences of suburbanisation?

• Social- communities are split up, decline of inner city triggers cycle of deprivation

• Economic- land increases in price as demand increases at the city edge, loss of jobs and economy in inner city

• Environmental- the green belt is put under increasing pressure, increased commuting results in increased congestion and pollution

What is infill?

• This is when vacant land in an urban area is used to build new developments of housing

• This can be on greenfield sites- plots of land that has not been built on before

• This can also be on brownfield sites- land that has been used, abandoned and await reuse

What is re-urbanisation?

• This is when people move back into inner city areas where populations had previously declined due to a range of social, economic and environmental issues.

• These areas are improved or gentrified by public and private funding and then attract both young and older people who enjoy the benefits of being near the city centre.

What is counter-urbanisation?

• This is when people move from an urban area to a more rural area.

• People wish to escape from urban problems such as pollution, congestion, poor housing and high crime rates.

What are the four main reasons for counter-urbanisation?

1. Increase in car ownership

2. Urban areas becoming increasingly unpleasant areas to live

3. People of retirement age moving out of cities

4. People do not have to travel into the city centre for work and so choose to live on the outskirts of cities

What is the cycle of rural decline?

• People leave rural areas for more opportunities in cities

• Employers find it difficult to recruit labour

• Less investment is given to the area and businesses are forced to shut down

• Shops and services decline

• People notice the decline and lower quality of life

What conflicts arise from rural change?

• People who migrate to rural areas pay high prices for houses which results in young villagers being unable to afford a house in their village and must move away.

• The newcomers may do their shopping in a large retail park on the edge of the city where they work. The result is that fewer people buy from the local village shop which might have to close. Village pubs close and are converted into expensive homes. Increase in internet banking has badly affected small rural branches.

How does urban land use change with the Burgess model?

• As you move out from the CBD, land becomes cheaper and so buildings are less dense and less high

• The CBD is the oldest part of the city, with shops, businesses and small, densely packed houses.

• The inner city has old factories, high-rise flats and railway stations

• Inner suburbs have semi-detached houses and shopping centres.

• Outer suburbs have open spaces and parks, modern factories and detached houses.

What is urban regeneration?

• The process of changing the land use of an area so it is either more profitable, sustainable, attractive or safe

• This can improve the physical environment of an area

• However, this also creates an inequality between the rich and poor as residents may not be able to afford living there anymore.

Summarise population change in the UK

• UK population increased slowly until around 1800

• An increase in life expectancy, improved food supplies and clean water, led to rapid population growth during the 1800s

• Falling birth rates, due to changing social attitudes and the emancipation of women, led to a slowing of population growth in the 1900s

• Since the 1950s, access to contraception and modern medicines have helped keep birth rates and death rates low and as a result population growth has been low.

What are some factors leading to rural depopulation in some rural areas of the UK?

• The mechanisation of agriculture which has led to the decreasing availability of jobs

• The younger generation leaving to gain a wider variety of opportunities 

• Rural services decline with the closure of schools, shops and post offices

• Rural isolation due to poor transport and communication links

• Low wages

Why were the London Docklands as they were pre-1981?

• During the 19th Century, its port was the busiest in the world, attracting thousands of migrants

• During the 1950s, the size of the ships increased so much that they were unable to sail up the Thames to the docks

• By the 1970s, the area had become virtually derelict with few jobs, few amenities and poor living conditions, forcing people to move away

What were the aims of the 1981 London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC)?

• Improve social conditions- creating new housing, recreational amenities and shopping facilities

• Improve economic conditions- creating new jobs and improving transport systems

• Improve environmental conditions- reclaiming derelict land, planting trees and creating open space

What social positives have resulted from the LDDC?

• Thousands of homes have been built

• Local authority housing has been refurbished

• Several huge underground shopping centres and leisure facilities have been built

• University of East London has been built

What economic positives have resulted from the LDDC?

• Docklands Light Railway which links the area with central London has been built as well as a Jubilee line extension

• City airport which sits on the old Royal Docks has been built as well as many new roads

• Number of skilled jobs rose rapidly in many financial institutions

• Many high-rise office blocks have been built

What environmental positives have resulted from the LDDC?

• 750 hectares of derelict land has been reclaimed

• 200,000 trees have been planted

• Open space has been created

What are the drawbacks of the LDDC?

• The traditional ‘east end community’ has been lost

• Not everybody has benefited from these changes

What are the positives of immigration?

• Skills gaps are filled

• The economy benefits from hardworking people

• Public services benefit, eg workers in the NHS

• Government tax revenue increases

• Culture is enriched, eg world foods and festivals

• Immigrant groups boost the birth rate.

What are the negatives of immigration?

• Pressure is put on services, housing and infrastructure

• Friction may develop between the host population and migrant groups, eg locals may feel they have missed out on job opportunities because of increased competition

• Migrants tend to be located together in large city areas

• Migrant groups may not assimilate into local communities

• Gender imbalance, more men usually migrate.

How does teleworking and commuting influence where people live in the UK?

• An increasingly large amount of people (typically young families) are choosing to work from home, online

• People are more likely to travel longer distances if they do not have to do so five days a week

• An improvement in transport infrastructure means people can commute longer distances and so have a wide range of living options

Define the following terms: range, threshold population, catchment area

• Range: The distance a consumer is willing to travel to consume a particular product

• Threshold population: The minimum number of consumers a retail business needs to make a profit

• Catchment area: The area from which a retail business gets its customers

What are the positive impacts of online shopping on retail?

• Job creation for software designers, warehouse workers and delivery drivers

• Customers save time and money and access a greater variety of goods and services

• Online businesses have access to global markets

• Less individual car journeys are made, reducing carbon emissions

What are the negative impacts of online shopping on retail?

• Loss of jobs on the high street- empty shops trigger multiplier effect

• Not all people have access to broadband and online savings

• Loss of high street services hit the elderly and rural residents the hardest

• Increased carbon emissions due to global transport of goods and unecessary packaging

What economic factors have lead to the development of out-of-town retailing?

• High rents in CBD compared to out of town

• CBD shops were old and in need of modification- resulting in high costs for the retailer

What cultural factors have lead to the development of out-of-town retailing?

Large out-of-town shopping centres allow people to

• Visit several shops under one roof

• Have protection from the wind and rain

• Have free car parking

What technological factor has lead to the development of out-of-town retailing?

• Improvements in road networks in and around urban areas allow consumers to drive more quickly and with less congestion to out-of-town shopping areas rather than CBDs

What are the impacts of out-of-town retailing?

• There has been decentralisation of retailing, whereby major retailers have moved their premises from central locations in the CBD to the edge of the city.

• This causes the polo effect where there is an economic, social, and retailing hole in the middle of the city

Name an advantage and disadvantage of leisure centres

Advantage: Improves the health of users and local residents who can access jobs created, forming a community feel

Disadvantage: Increases road congestion and air/noise pollution which reduces quality of life for residents

Name an advantage and disadvantage of parks

Advantage: Improves air quality and biodiversity

Disadvantage: It attracts young people who may be involved in antisocial behaviour

Name an advantage and disadvantage of entertainment

Advantage: Brings a sense of community in shared experiences

Disadvantage: Increases congestion and noise pollution for local residents

Name an advantage and disadvantage of national parks

Advantage: Improves physical and mental health of users and local residents

Disadvantage: High footfall damages vegetation and habitats

What are the positives to hosting a major sporting event?

• Visitors spend money in local economy

• Employment opportunities generated

• Host country improves reputation, attracting tourists

• Increased participation in sport improves health

• Sporting facilities are improved, benefiting locals

• Infrastructure (EG transport) is improved

What are the negatives to hosting a major sporting event?

• Noise/air pollution

• Congestion disrupts local communities

• Funding is not maintained after event so facilities close

• Increased international travel results in increased carbon emissions

• Local national residents are not involved in decision making process and feel that government investment can be spent so much effectively

What is the significance of the Lake District?

• It is the largest national park in England

• Around 14.8 million tourists visit each year

• Visitors spend £600 million a year

• Tourism creates 20,000 full time jobs and 35,000 seasinal jobs- adding to the local economy

What problems have been created by leisure in the Lake District?

• Roads are too narrow- meaning traffic jams are very common

• There is insufficient parking meaning some cars park on grass- causing damage

• Many homes are ‘second homes’- pricing local people out and increasing housing prices

• There is lots of water pollution- sourcing from water sports

How has leisure in the Lake District been managed?

• Paths have been repaired in a huge project involving re-planting native plants and creating steps

• Roadsides have been fenced off so cars cannot damage grass verges

• More bins have been installed

• Signs encourage people to be responsible

How can rural environments be managed sustainably?

• Create honeypot sites to attract people away from areas that need more protection.

• Restrict activities by controlling the number of new buildings and insisting on the use of traditional buildings.

• Restrict the activities of visitors e.g., not allowing motor boats on many lakes or keeping certain areas free from tourists’ cars.

• Introduce or expand visitors’ centres to inform tourists of habitats that could be destroyed if people aren’t careful.

• Sustainable management such as fencing off areas in need of protection such as eroded footpaths or areas where replanting is taking place.

Evaluate GNI per capita as a development indicator

• This stands for the average gross national income per person

• This measure only shows economic development- it says nothing about the quality of life of those in the country

• It is also an average so it hides information of the ultra-rich and very poor

What is a LIC, NIC and HIC? Name examples

• A LIC is a country that has a GNI per capita of $1,045, examples of LICs include Afghanistan, Haiti, and Somalia.

• A NIC is a country with a level of development between a LIC and HIC – they have a rapidly growing economy, examples of NICs include China, India and Brazil.

• A HIC is a country has a GNI per capita of $12,746 or above, examples of HICs include the UK, France, and the USA

Evaluate death rate as a development indicator

• This is the number of deaths per 1,000 people

• As the most developed countries tend to have low death rates, this is a good indicator of social progress

• However, this can be changed due to war or pandemics

Evaluate HDI as a development indicator

• This is the human development index

• It takes into account economic measures, such as income, but also social measures, such as levels of education.

Evaluate birth rate as a development indicator

• This is the number of live births per 1,000 people

• As the most developed countries tend to have low birth rates, this is a good indicator of social progress

• However, birth rates can be changed by government policies (EG China’s one child policy)

What is globalisation?

• Globalisation is the free flow of goods, people, ideas and money

• These make a complex global web of interdependence, linking people and places in distant continents

Which factors drive globalisation?

• Trade- improved technology and cheap aviation fuel mean fresh food can be flown from distant places to our supermarkets

• Culture- Western music, TV and film can be accessed everywhere

• Multinational companies- large companies manufacture and sell products all over the world

• Technology- global connections are helped via smartphones, the internet and satellite television

• Migration- the movement of people strengthens ties between countries and helps the growth of culture and trade

How is the UK connected to other countries by the process of globalisation?

• Many UK companies have factories and offices in other countries

• Many UK nationals move to other countries and start their own businesses

• The UK trades with lots of countries around the worl, including many NICs and LICs

• Our population is made of lots of nationalities such as Indian, Polish and Pakistani

What are the positive impacts of globalisation at a global scale?

• Skilled workers are in demand and can move easily between countries

• Higher levels of income and quality of life

• Access to wide range of skills and research

• International trade routes and foreign investment improve opportunities

What are the negative impacts of globalisation at a global scale?

• Movement of people, transport ownership and loss of biodiversity increases globally

• The impact is greater on developing countries, particularly remote rural areas, increasing the development gap

• Decisions made elsewhere do not consider local or national identities

• The movement of skilled workers and researchers leaves an imbalance in developing and emerging countries, reducing the potential for further development unless they pay higher wages, leading to higher global costs

What are the positive impacts of globalisation at a national level?

• Higher levels of incoming revenue from tourism, exports and imports 

• Growth of improved health care, infrastructure, social care and education

• Social mobility is greater - access to higher education and senior leadership roles

• TNC offer apprenticeships and incentives for progression

What are the negative impacts of globalisation at a global level?

• Increased levels of disparity between places - some towns and cities will benefit more from government policies

• Social mobility is limited to urban areas, people in rural areas need to migrate

• TNCs control a large labour force and can 'black list' workers, effectively preventing people from working elsewhere

• Industrial growth impacts the environment - burning fossil fuels adds to global warming and pollution

• Growth of urban slums

What are the consequences of globalisation on uneven development in the UK?

What are the consequences of globalisation on uneven development in India?