Learning and Memory: Key Concepts and Theories

Learning

The process of acquiring new information or skills.

Memory

The ability to store, retain, and retrieve learned information.

Encoding

Transforming information into a usable form.

Storage

Maintaining information over time.

Retrieval

Accessing stored information.

Decay

Loss of information over time due to lack of use.

Interference

Disruption in retrieval due to competing information.

MTL System: Hippocampus

Forms and consolidates episodic and spatial memories.

MTL System: Parahippocampal, Entorhinal, and Perirhinal Cortices

Handle sensory input and object recognition.

MTL System: Amygdala

Adds emotional context to memories.

MTL System: Mammillary Bodies

Aids in memory consolidation.

MTL System: Anterior Thalamic Nuclei

Contributes to episodic memory.

MTL System: Fornix

Connects memory-related structures.

H.M. - what memory loss did he have?

- what remained intact?

Severe anterograde amnesia—unable to form new declarative memories. Some retrograde amnesia, losing memories close to surgery.

Intact: procedural memory, IQ, working memory

Unilateral MTL Removal causes

Minor memory impairment.

Bilateral MTL Removal causes

Severe amnesia.

Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to recall past memories.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories.

Broca's Area

Speech production.

Wernicke's Area

Language comprehension.

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units to enhance memory (e.g., breaking phone numbers into 3-digit chunks).

Rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it in working memory or transfer it to long-term storage.

Sensory Memory

Brief storage of sensory input.

(< 1 sec)

Short-Term Memory

Holds information temporarily for immediate use.

(< 1 min)

Long-Term Memory

Stores information for extended periods.

(lifetime)

Working Memory

The active, limited-capacity system for manipulating information during complex tasks.

Declarative:

Semantic Memory

Knowledge of facts (e.g., 'Paris is the capital of France').

Declarative:

Episodic Memory

Memory of personal experiences (e.g., 'My trip to Paris').

Non-Declarative Memory:

Classical conditioning

Associating stimuli with reflexive responses.

Non declarative/non-associative learning:

Habituation

Decreased response to repetitive stimuli.

Non declarative/non-associative learning:

Sensitization

Increased response to intense stimuli.

Ribot's Law

States that older memories are more resistant to disruption than newer ones during retrograde amnesia.

Standard Consolidation Theory

Proposes that the hippocampus initially stores memories but eventually transfers them to the cortex.

Multiple Trace Theory

Suggests episodic memories are stored across the hippocampus and cortex indefinitely.

Reconsolidation

Refers to the re-stabilization of memories after retrieval, allowing modification.

Hebbian Learning

"Cells that fire together wire together"—strengthening connections between neurons that activate simultaneously.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

A mechanism for memory formation involving the strengthening synaptic connections. NMDA receptors play a critical role in mediating LTP.

- adding AMPA receptors strengthens

- removing AMPA receptors weakens

Characteristics of Emotion & Emotional Response

Emotions are rapid, automatic responses to stimuli involving physiological arousal, cognitive interpretation, and behavioral expression.

Affect vs Emotion vs Mood

Affect: Immediate expression of emotion.

Emotion: Brief, intense experience. Mood: Longer-lasting emotional state.

Neural Components of Emotion

Amygdala: Processes emotional salience; includes basolateral, central, and medial nuclei. Hippocampus: Links emotions to memories.

Limbic System: Includes the amygdala, hippocampus, and related structures for emotional processing.

Valence vs Arousal

• Positive or negative emotional value.

• Level of emotional intensity.

Emotion Processing Theories:

James Lange

James-Lange: Physiological responses precede emotional experience. Cannon-Bard: Emotional and physiological responses occur simultaneously.

Kluver-Bucy Syndrome

Results from temporal lobe damage, causing emotional blunting, hyperorality, and hypersexuality.

Facial Expressions of Emotion

Universal expressions include happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust.

Dysarthria

Impaired motor control of speech muscles leading to slurred or slow speech.

Broca's Aphasia

Broca's Aphasia: Difficulty producing speech; characteristics include telegraphic speech and agrammatic aphasia.

Patient Tan

Case study of Broca's Aphasia.

- progressively lost the ability to produce meaningful speech

Most Likely Hemisphere for aphasia

Left.

Mental Lexicon

Orthography: Spelling structure of words.

Phonology: Sound structure of words.

Phonemes: Basic units of sound.

Prosody

The rhythm, tone, and intonation of speech.

Primate Language studies

Evolutionary Brain Developments: Enlarged brain regions (e.g., Broca's area analogs) enable complex language for humans

Sign Language vs Spoken Language: Nonhuman primates excel in sign language but struggle with spoken language due to vocal limitations.

The perisylvian cortex (left side) contains

key language related components

- brocas and wernickes area

The modal Model of memory explains what three memory systems

sensory, short-term, long-term

Emotional Processing Theories:

Schachter-Singer

Emotions arise from physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation.

Emotional Processing Theories:

Lazarus

Emotions stem from appraisals of situations.

Emotional Processing Theories:

Ledoux

Highlights the amygdala's role in processing emotions quickly and unconsciously

Long-term Depression

lack of trials weakens synapses which allows LTP to focus on more important or newer information

Wernickes Aphasia

Difficulty understanding speech.

Conduction Aphasia

Impairment in repeating words. Semantic

Paraphasia

Substituting words with similar meanings.

telegraph speech

choppy speech in which connecting words are left out, but the meaning is usually clear

agrammatic aphasia

increased difficulty to produce and comprehend the grammatical aspects of language; also called anterior aphasia.

- lose the ability to interpret words like "was" and "by".

speech apraxia

difficulty using mouth to form words, trouble repeating words

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).