French Revolution

salon

a type of intellectual gathering or an art exhibition

Baron de Montesquieu

An influential French philosopher known for his works on political theory. Particularly the concept of separation of powers among three branches, and proposed a system of checks and balances.

John Locke

Seventeenth-century thinker who wrote Two Treaties of government.

Separation of powers 

divides the state into the executive, legislative, and judicial branches to prevent any one from having too much power. Each branch has its own role: the executive enforces laws, the legislature makes them, and the judiciary applies them independently.

Natural Rights

Locke’s view of the rights belonging to all the people at birth, including the right to life, liberty, and property

Checks and balances 

ensure that the executive, legislative, and judicial branches can limit each other’s powers. This system prevents abuse of authority and maintains a balance within the government.

Thomas Hobbes

Seventeenth- century thinker who wrote the Leviathan. he argued that humans need a stronger central authority to maintain order.

Social Contract

Hobbe’s proposal for an organized society in which people enter into an agreement accepting a powerful government in exchange for their freedom.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Philosophe who wrote the social contract. He was known for his ideas about freedom and equality and the government should be based on “general will”

Philosophes

French thinkers who believed that the use of reason could lead to reforms of government, laws, and society

Mary Wollstonecraft

18th-century English writer and philosopher who fought for women’s rights. She is best known for her book A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), which argued that women should have the same education and opportunities as men.

Catherine Macaulay

18th-century English historian and political writer. She supported republican ideas and argued for equality and liberty, becoming one of the first women to write about democratic principles and women’s right

Voltaire 

Philosophe who used his writings to fight ignorance, superstition, and intolerance

Denis Diderot

French writer, philosopher, and leading thinker of the Enlightenment. He is best known for creating and editing the Encyclopédie, a massive collection of knowledge that aimed to spread reason, science, and new ideas across society.

Adam Smith

author of the Western of nations; proponent of the free-market system

Laissez Faire

French term meaning “let do” or “let it be.” It describes an economic idea that the government should not interfere in business or the economy, allowing companies and markets to operate freely based on supply and demand.

Natural Law

rules discouraged by reason. universal moral principles—rights and rules of behavior—that everyone can understand through reason, and that exist independently of laws made by humans.

Ancien-regime

Who makes up each estate. The government in pre-revolutionary France

Bourgeoisie

The middle class; including merchants, professionals, and business owners, who were wealthier than peasants but had little political power.

Estates General

the legislative body consisting of representatives of the three estates. clergy (First Estate), the nobility (Second Estate), and the common people (Third Estate), called by the king to discuss taxes and laws.

Bastille 

Fortress in Paris used as a prison; French Revolution began when Parisians stormed it in 1789

Emigres

a person who flees his or her country for political reasons

Cahier

notebook used during the French Revolution to record grievances 

Estate

social class

Suffrage

the right to vote

Deficit Spending

when a government spends more money than it takes in

Jacques Necker

a financial advisor to louis XVI; tried to fix France’s financial problems before the Revolution and was popular with the common people for wanting government reforms.

Marquis de Lafayette

French nobleman and soldier who fought in the American Revolution and later supported the French Revolution, promoting liberty and constitutional government.

Louis XVI

The King of France during the French Revolution (reigned 1774–1792). He faced major debt and unrest, was overthrown, and eventually executed by guillotine in 1793.

factions

dissenting groups of people; small groups within a larger group (such as a political party or movement) that have different opinions or interests and often compete for power or influence.

Olympe de Gouges

a journalist who believed that the Declaration of Rights of Man should grant equal citizenship to women.

Marie Antoinette

Austrian-born queen of France; Louis XVI’s wife

Sans-culottes

working class men and women who made the French Revolution more radical

Republic

system of government in which officials are chosen by the people

Jacobins

members of a revolutionary political club made during the French Revolution

Jean paul Marat 

radical journalist and politician during the French Revolution. He strongly supported the rights of the poor and called for violent action against the Revolution’s enemies. He was later assassinated in his bath by Charlotte Corday.

Maximillian Robespierre

leader of the committee of public safety; chief architect of the reign of terror

Reign of terror

period from September 1793 to July 1794 when those who resisted the French revolution were arrested or executed.

Guillotine

a bladed execution device used during the French Revolution

Napoleon

popular military hero who became ruler/emperor of France

nationalism

a strong feeling of pride in and devotion to ones country

mareilles 

port city in France; the French national anthem was named after it

plebiscite

a popular vote by ballot

Napoleonic code

the code of laws created under napoleon that embodied enlightenment principles of equality, tolerance, and freedom

annex

add territory to an existing state, country, or empire

Continental system

a form of economic warfare that closed European ports to British goods; the foreign policy in which Europe adopted Napoleons reforms.

guerrilla warfare

a form of warfare using hit and run raids

scorched-earth policy

when the movement of an army includes burning crops and villages to make it difficult for the enemy to follow

abdicate

step down from power

Congress of Vienna

a meeting of heads of state within Europe after waterloo to restore stability and order in Europe

legitimacy

principle by which monarchies that had been unseated by the French revolution or napoleon were restored.

Concert of Europe

a system in which the powers of Europe met periodically to discuss any problems affecting the peace in Europe

Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

A 1789 document created by the French National Assembly that stated all men are born free and equal, guaranteeing natural rights such as liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.

Enlightened Despotism

A form of government in which absolute monarchs used their power to bring about political and social reforms inspired by Enlightenment ideas—such as promoting education, justice, and limited freedom.

Actions of the National Assembly during the Moderate Phase (1) of the Revolution

abolished feudal privileges, adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man, reorganized the Church and government, and created a constitutional monarchy (1791 Constitution).

Voting Rights of Citizens Throughout the French Revolution

At first, only property-owning men could vote (limited suffrage). Later, during the radical phase, all adult men gained the right to vote (universal male suffrage). Under Napoleon, voting became limited again, with most power held by him.

Committee of Public Safety

A 12-member group formed in 1793 to protect the French Republic from internal and external threats; it led the Reign of Terror under Robespierre’s leadership.

Napoleon’s Exile

After his defeat in 1814, Napoleon was first exiled to the island of Elba, escaped and briefly regained power during the Hundred Days, then was defeated again at Waterloo (1815) and exiled permanently to St. Helena, where he died.

Tennis Court Oath

A pledge made in 1789 by members of the Third Estate who vowed not to disband until they had written a new constitution for France; it marked the beginning of the French Revolution.

Outcomes of the French Revolution

absolute monarchy, spread ideas of equality, liberty, and nationalism, led to Napoleon’s rise, and inspired future democratic movements around the world.