AP Psychology

Emotion (366)

a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience.

James-Lange theory (367)

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

Cannon-Bard theory (367)

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion

Two-factor theory (367)

the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal.

Polygraph (372)

a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes

Facial feedback (383)

the effect of facial expressions on experienced emotions, as when a facial expression of anger or happiness intensifies feelings of anger or happiness.

Catharsis (388)

emotional release. The catharsis hypothesis maintains that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges

Feel-good, do-good phenomenon (390)

people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood.

Well-being (390)

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life.

Adaptation-level phenomenon (394)

our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience

Relative deprivation (394)

the perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we compare ourselves

Behavioral medicine (397)

an interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease.

Health psychology (397)

a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine

Stress (397)

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.

General adaptation syndrome (GAS) (399)

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

Coronary heart disease (401)

the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries

Type A (402)

Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people.

Type B (402)

Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people.

Psychophysiological illness (403)

iterally, "mind-body" illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches

Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) (403)

the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health

Lymphocytes (403)

the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances.

Biological psychology (52)

A branch of psychology concerned with the link between biology and behavior (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.)

Neuron (53)

A nerve cell, the building block of the nervous system

Sensory neurons (53)

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Motor neurons (53)

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons (53)

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Dendrite (53)

The bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receives messages and conducts impulses toward the cell body

Axon (53)

The extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles and glands

Myelin sheath (53)

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next

Action potential (53)

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Threshold (54)

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Synapse (55)

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and then the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap left at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft

Neurotransmitters (55)

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons. When released by the sending neurons, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neurons, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

Reuptake (55)

A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Endorphins (57)

"morphine within"- natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

Nervous system (59)

The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system

Central nervous system (CNS) (59)

The brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS) (59)

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

Nerves (59)

Bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

Somatic nervous system (59)

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system

Autonomic nervous system (59)

The part of the peripheral system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms

Sympathetic nervous system (59)

The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

Parasympathetic nervous system (60)

The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Reflex (61)

A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as a knee-jerk response

Endocrine system (62)

The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Hormones (62)

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the blood stream, and affect other tissues

Adrenal glands (63)

A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and nonrepinephrine) that help arouse the body at time of stress

Pituitary gland (63)

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

Lesion (67)

Tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimental caused destruction of brain tissue

Electroencephalogram (EEG) (67)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweeps across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

CT (computed tomography) scan (68)

A series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body. Also called CAT scan

PET (positron emission tomography) scan (68)

A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radio active form of glucose goes while the brain is performs a certain task

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) (68)

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy

fMRI (functional MRI) (68)

A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain activity

Brainstem (69)

The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brain stem is responsible for automatic survival functions

Medulla (69)

The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

Reticular formation (70)

A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

Thalamus (70)

The brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Cerebellum (70)

The "little brain" at the rear of the brain stem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

Limbic system (71)

Doughnut-shaped neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.

Amygdala (71)

Two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

Hypothalamus (72)

A neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Cerebral cortex (74)

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

Glial cells (74)

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Frontal lobes (74)

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

Parietal lobes (74)

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

Temporal lobes (74)

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

Motor cortex (75)

An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that control voluntary movements

Sensory cortex (77)

Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Association areas (78)

Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

Aphasia (80)

Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

Broca's area (80)

Controls language expression—an area, usually in the left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's area (80)

Controls language reception—a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

Plasticity (82)

The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

Neurogenesis (83)

The formation of new neurons

Corpus callosum (84)

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Split brain (84)

A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.

Consciousness (89)

Our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Cognitive neuroscience (89)

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

Dual processing (90)

The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

Behavior genetics (95)

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on the brain

Environment (95)

Every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people around us

Chromosomes (95)

Thread like structure made of DNA molecules that contain genes

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) (95)

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

Genes (95)

The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein.

Genome (96)

The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

Identical twins (96)

Twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

Fraternal twins (97)

Twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment.

Heritability (100)

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

Interaction (101)

The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

Molecular genetics (102)

The subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes.

Evolutionary psychology (103)

The study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection

Natural selection (103)

The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Mutation (104)

A random error in gene replication that leads to a change

Motivation (328)

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

Instinct (328)

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.

Drive-reduction theory (329)

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

Homeostasis (329)

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

Incentive (329)

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

Hierarchy of needs (330)

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active