Learning and Memory Psych MC Practice Unit 5

learning

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

ivan pavlov

Russian physiologist who observed conditioned salivary responses in dogs

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned response (UR)

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

biologically adaptive behaviors

behaviors that help animals prepare for good or bad events

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Thorndike's Law of Effect

responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated

skinner box

A small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is systematically recorded while the consequences of the response are controlled. also known as the operant chamber

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

successive approximations

small steps in behavior, one after the other, that lead to a particular goal behavior

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.

primary reinforcers

Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs

conditioned reinforcers

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

immediate reinforcer

a reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior

delayed reinforcers

a reinforcer that is promised at a later time and require the ability to delay gratification

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

partial/intermittent reinforcement schedules

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than continuous reinforcement

resistance to extinction

occurs when an organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer has been terminated

fixed-ratio schedule

reward after a specified number of responses

variable-ratio schedule

reward after an unknown number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

reward after a specified time has elapsed

variable-interval schedule

reward at unpredictable time intervals

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

positive punishment

adding a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

negative punishment

removing a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

John Garcia

Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.

taste aversion

a learned avoidance of a particular food

ecologically relevant conditioning

conditioning that is associated with the natural environment

instinctive drift

tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement

expectancy

the perceived relationship between effort and performance

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

observational learning

learning by observing others; also called social learning

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Albert Bandura

researcher famous for work in observational learning including the famous Bobo doll experiment (adults showed kids how to play with the doll and the kids imitated them)

vicarious reinforcement/punishment

learning brought about by watching another person react to a stimulus

mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

overimitation

The tendency of children to copy an action that is not a relevant part of the behavior to be learned; common among 2- to 6-year-olds when they imitate adult actions that are irrelevant and inefficient.

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

antisocial effects

watching antisocial behavior can lead to antisocial behavior patterns

violence-viewing effect

increased aggression and reduced prosocial behavior (helping an injured person) after viewing violence media

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

information processing model

model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages: encoding, storage, retrieval

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

storage

the retention of encoded information over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

connectionism

a type of information-processing approach that emphasizes the simultaneous activity of numerous interconnected processing units

three-stage memory model

A memory model which suggests that memory storage requires passage of information through three stages (sensory, short-term, and long-term memory).

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

central executive

the part of working memory that directs attention and processing

explicit memories

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

implicit memories

retention independent of conscious recollection, also called nondeclarative or procedural

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

peg-word system

uses association of terms to be remembered with a memorized scheme

hierarchies

Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

massed practice

a practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption

distributed practice

spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

self-reference effect

tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves

semantic memory

associated facts and concepts for knowledge

episodic memory

memory of one's personal past experiences

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory

flashbulb memories

detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events