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Developmental Psychology
Scientific study of how and why humans grow, change, and adapt across their lifespan
Application: Developmental psychologists study how children's cognitive abilities change as they progress through Piaget's stages of development.
Cross-Sectional Study
Research method that compares different age groups at a single point in time
Application: Researchers might use a cross-sectional study to examine how cognitive abilities differ across various age groups.
Longitudinal Study
Research method that follows the same group of individuals over an extended period
Application: A longitudinal study might track the cognitive development of a group of children from early childhood through adolescence.
Teratogens
Environmental agents that can cause birth defects when a fetus is exposed during pregnancy
Application: Alcohol is a teratogen that can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome when consumed by pregnant women.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
Group of birth defects caused by maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy
Application: Children with FAS may exhibit facial abnormalities, growth deficiencies, and cognitive impairments.
Habituation
Decreased response to a repeated stimulus
Application: Infants demonstrate habituation when they stop responding to a repeated sound or visual stimulus.
Maturation
Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior
Application: A child's ability to walk is largely dependent on the maturation of their motor skills.
Critical Period
Specific time during development when certain experiences or events have a particularly strong impact
Application: There is a critical period for language acquisition, where children more easily learn languages than adults.
Adolescence
Transitional stage of physical and psychological development between childhood and adulthood
Application: During adolescence, individuals experience significant changes in their bodies, emotions, and social relationships.
Puberty
Period of physical changes through which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction
Application: During puberty, boys experience voice deepening and girls begin menstruation.
Menopause
Period of time when women stop having menstrual cycles
Application: Women going through menopause may experience hot flashes and mood changes as their bodies adjust to hormonal shifts.
Sex
Biological characteristics that define males and females
Application: Sex is determined by chromosomes, with XX typically resulting in female and XY in male.
Gender
Socially constructed roles, behaviors, and attributes that a society considers appropriate for men and women
Application: Gender roles may influence career choices, with some professions being traditionally associated with a particular gender.
Intersex
Individuals born with reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn't fit typical definitions of female or male
Application: An intersex person might have chromosomes that don't match their external genitalia.
Aggression
Behavior intended to cause harm to another individual
Application: A child pushing another child on the playground is an example of physical aggression.
Relational Aggression
Form of aggression aimed at damaging social relationships or social status
Application: Spreading rumors or excluding someone from a social group are examples of relational aggression.
Carol Gilligan
American psychologist known for her work on moral development and ethical relationships
Application: Gilligan's research challenged Kohlberg's theory of moral development by highlighting gender differences in moral reasoning.
X Chromosome
Sex chromosome present in both males and females
Application: Females typically have two X chromosomes, while males have one X and one Y chromosome.
Y Chromosome
Sex chromosome present only in males
Application: The presence of a Y chromosome typically leads to male development in humans.
Testosterone
Primary male sex hormone
Application: During puberty, increased testosterone levels in boys lead to deepening of the voice and growth of facial hair.
Estrogens
Group of hormones responsible for female sexual development and reproduction
Application: Estrogen levels in women fluctuate during the menstrual cycle, influencing mood and physical changes.
Primary Sex Characteristics
Physical features directly related to reproduction
Application: Ovaries in females and testes in males are examples of primary sex characteristics.
Secondary Sex Characteristics
Physical features that distinguish the sexes but are not directly involved in reproduction
Application: Breast development in females and facial hair growth in males are secondary sex characteristics.
Spermarche
First ejaculation in males
Application: Spermarche typically occurs during puberty and marks the beginning of male fertility.
Menarche
First menstrual period in females
Application: The age of menarche can be influenced by factors such as nutrition and physical activity.
Role
Set of behaviors, rights, and obligations associated with a social position
Application: The role of a teacher includes instructing students, grading assignments, and maintaining classroom discipline.
Gender Role
Set of behaviors, attitudes, and activities expected or considered appropriate for a specific gender
Application: Traditional gender roles might expect women to be nurturing and men to be assertive.
Sexual Aggression
Any sexual activity carried out against a person's will
Application: Sexual harassment in the workplace is a form of sexual aggression.
Gender Identity
Person's internal sense of being male, female, or another gender
Application: A transgender person's gender identity does not match the sex they were assigned at birth.
Social Learning Theory
Theory proposing that people learn by observing others' behavior and its consequences
Application: Children may learn gender-typical behaviors by observing and imitating their parents.
Gender Typing
Process of socialization by which children learn behaviors considered appropriate for their gender
Application: Parents might encourage boys to play with trucks and girls to play with dolls, contributing to gender typing.
Androgyny
Combination of masculine and feminine characteristics in one person
Application: An androgynous individual might display both assertiveness (traditionally masculine) and emotional sensitivity (traditionally feminine).
Sexuality
Capacity for sexual feelings and behaviors
Application: Sexuality encompasses various aspects, including sexual orientation, sexual behavior, and sexual identity.
Asexual
Person who experiences little or no sexual attraction to others
Application: An asexual individual might form romantic relationships but have little interest in sexual activity.
Alfred Kinsey
American biologist and sexologist who conducted groundbreaking research on human sexuality
Application: Kinsey's research led to the development of the Kinsey scale, which measures sexual orientation on a continuum.
Social Script
Culturally shared expectations about how to behave in specific social situations
Application: The social script for a first date might include expectations about who pays for the meal and whether a goodnight kiss is appropriate.
Alice Eagly
American social psychologist known for her work on gender roles and stereotypes
Application: Eagly's social role theory suggests that gender stereotypes arise from the distribution of men and women into different social roles.
Sexual Orientation
Pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attraction to men, women, both genders, or neither gender
Application: Homosexuality, heterosexuality, and bisexuality are examples of sexual orientations.
Jean Piaget
Swiss psychologist known for his work on child development
Application: Piaget's theory of cognitive development describes how children's thinking evolves through different stages.
Cognition
Mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and comprehension
Application: Problem-solving, decision-making, and memory are all aspects of cognition.
Schema
Mental framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information
Application: A child's schema for 'dog' might include four legs, fur, and barking.
Assimilation
Process of incorporating new information into existing schemas
Application: A child who learns that a whale is a mammal, not a fish, assimilates this information into their existing schema of mammals.
Accommodation
Process of changing existing schemas to fit new information
Application: When a child first encounters a platypus, they might need to accommodate their schema of mammals to include egg-laying animals.
Sensorimotor Stage
First stage of Piaget's theory, from birth to about 2 years, where infants understand the world through sensory experiences and motor actions
Application: An infant learning that shaking a rattle produces sound is in the sensorimotor stage.
Object Permanence
Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they can't be seen
Application: A baby who looks for a toy hidden under a blanket demonstrates object permanence.
Preoperational Stage
Second stage of Piaget's theory, from about 2 to 7 years, characterized by symbolic thinking and egocentrism
Application: A child using a banana as a pretend telephone is displaying symbolic thinking in the preoperational stage.
Conservation
Understanding that certain properties of an object remain the same despite changes in appearance
Application: A child who understands that the amount of water remains the same when poured from a tall, thin glass into a short, wide glass has mastered conservation.
Egocentrism
Inability to see situations from another person's point of view
Application: A young child might hide by covering their eyes, believing that if they can't see others, others can't see them.
Concrete Operational Stage
Third stage of Piaget's theory, from about 7 to 11 years, characterized by logical thinking about concrete situations
Application: Children in this stage can understand that 5+3=8 and 8-3=5, demonstrating reversibility of thought.
Formal Operational Stage
Final stage of Piaget's theory, from about 11 years onward, characterized by abstract and hypothetical thinking
Application: Adolescents in this stage can engage in complex moral reasoning and consider hypothetical scenarios.
Lev Vygotsky
Russian psychologist known for his sociocultural theory of cognitive development
Application: Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development influences educational practices that involve scaffolding.
Scaffold
Temporary support provided to help a learner accomplish a task
Application: A teacher might scaffold a student's writing by providing an outline or guiding questions.
Theory of Mind
Ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others
Application: A child with theory of mind understands that others can have beliefs different from their own.
Language
Structured system of communication used by humans
Application: Language allows us to express complex ideas, emotions, and experiences to others.
Noam Chomsky
American linguist known for his theory of universal grammar
Application: Chomsky's work has influenced our understanding of how children acquire language so rapidly and effortlessly.
Phoneme
Smallest unit of sound that can distinguish one word from another in a language
Application: The words 'bat' and 'pat' differ by only one phoneme, the initial consonant sound.
Morpheme
Smallest meaningful unit in a language
Application: The word 'unhappy' contains two morphemes: 'un-' (meaning 'not') and 'happy.'
Grammar
Set of structural rules governing the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in a language
Application: Understanding grammar allows us to form coherent sentences and communicate effectively.
Universal Grammar (UG)
Theory proposing that the ability to learn grammar is hard-wired into the brain
Application: UG might explain why children can learn any language they're exposed to during early childhood.
Babbling Stage
Period in language development when infants produce various speech-like sounds
Application: A 6-month-old baby making 'ba-ba-ba' sounds is in the babbling stage.
One-Word Stage
Period in language development when children use single words to express entire thoughts
Application: A toddler saying 'milk' to mean 'I want milk' is in the one-word stage.
Two-Word Stage
Period in language development when children begin to combine two words to express more complex ideas
Application: A child saying 'mommy go' to mean 'Mommy is leaving' is in the two-word stage.
Telegraphic Speech
Speech consisting of only the most essential words
Application: A child saying 'want cookie' instead of 'I want a cookie' is using telegraphic speech.
Aphasia
Language disorder caused by damage to specific brain areas
Application: A person with Broca's aphasia might understand speech but struggle to produce fluent speech.
Paul Broca
French physician who discovered the speech production center of the brain
Application: Broca's discovery of the area in the frontal lobe responsible for speech production advanced our understanding of language processing in the brain.
Broca's Area
Region in the frontal lobe of the brain involved in speech production
Application: Damage to Broca's area can result in difficulty producing speech while still understanding language.
Carl Wernicke
German neurologist who discovered the brain region involved in language comprehension
Application: Wernicke's work complemented Broca's, providing a more complete picture of language processing in the brain.
Wernicke's Area
Region in the temporal lobe of the brain involved in language comprehension
Application: Damage to Wernicke's area can result in fluent speech that lacks meaning.
Linguistic Determinism
Strong form of linguistic relativity proposing that language determines thought
Application: The hypothesis that speakers of languages with many words for snow perceive snow differently due to their language.
Benjamin Lee Whorf
American linguist known for his work on linguistic relativity
Application: Whorf's studies of Hopi language led him to propose that language shapes perception and thought.
Linguistic Relativism
Weaker form of linguistic relativity proposing that language influences thought
Application: The idea that the grammatical gender of nouns in some languages might influence how speakers perceive those objects.
Ecological Systems Theory
Theory proposed by Urie Bronfenbrenner that emphasizes the influence of environmental systems on development
Application: A child's development is influenced by their immediate family (microsystem) as well as broader societal factors (macrosystem).
Stranger Anxiety
Fear or wariness of unfamiliar people that typically develops in infants around 8 months of age
Application: An 8-month-old baby crying when approached by an unfamiliar adult is displaying stranger anxiety.
Attachment
Emotional bond between an infant and caregiver
Application: Secure attachment in infancy is associated with better social and emotional outcomes later in life.
Harry Harlow
American psychologist known for his experiments on maternal separation and social isolation in rhesus monkeys
Application: Harlow's experiments demonstrated the importance of comfort and contact in infant development, beyond mere feeding.
Margaret Harlow
American psychologist who collaborated with Harry Harlow on primate research
Application: The Harlows' work challenged the prevailing behaviorist view that infant attachment was simply a learned response to feeding.
Imprinting
Rapid learning that occurs during a critical period, typically soon after birth
Application: Goslings following the first moving object they see after hatching, even if it's not their mother, is an example of imprinting.
Konrad Lorenz
Austrian zoologist known for his work on imprinting in animals
Application: Lorenz's experiments with geese demonstrated how imprinting occurs and its importance in animal behavior.
Mary Ainsworth
American-Canadian developmental psychologist known for her work on attachment theory
Application: Ainsworth's Strange Situation procedure is used to assess attachment styles in young children.
Strange Situation
Procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth to assess attachment styles in young children
Application: In the Strange Situation, researchers observe how a child reacts to being separated from and reunited with their caregiver.
Secure Attachment
Attachment style characterized by trust in the caregiver's availability and responsiveness
Application: A securely attached child might be distressed when separated from their caregiver but easily comforted upon reunion.
Insecure Attachment
Attachment styles characterized by anxiety, avoidance, or disorganization in the child-caregiver relationship
Application: An insecurely attached child might show little distress when separated from their caregiver or be difficult to comfort upon reunion.
Temperament
Individual differences in emotional reactivity and self-regulation that appear early in life
Application: A child with an 'easy' temperament might adapt quickly to new situations, while a child with a 'difficult' temperament might be more easily upset by changes.
Erik Erikson
German-American psychologist known for his theory of psychosocial development
Application: Erikson's stages of psychosocial development describe conflicts that individuals must resolve throughout their lifespan.
Basic Trust
First stage in Erikson's theory, where infants develop a sense of whether the world is a safe and reliable place
Application: Consistent and responsive caregiving helps infants develop basic trust.
Self-Concept
Individual's beliefs about themselves, including their attributes and who and what the self is
Application: A child's self-concept might include beliefs about their abilities, their likes and dislikes, and their role in their family.
Diana Baumrind
American developmental psychologist known for her research on parenting styles
Application: Baumrind identified authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting styles, which have different effects on child development.
Social Identity
Part of an individual's self-concept derived from their membership in social groups
Application: A person might identify strongly with their cultural background, which contributes to their social identity.
Intimacy
Close, familiar, and usually affectionate or loving personal relationships
Application: Developing intimacy in romantic relationships involves sharing personal thoughts and feelings with a partner.
Emerging Adulthood
Developmental stage between adolescence and full-fledged adulthood, typically from ages 18 to 25
Application: Emerging adults often explore various life paths, including education, career options, and relationships.
Social Clock
Cultural timetable for when major life events should occur, such as marriage and parenthood
Application: Individuals may feel pressure to conform to the social clock, leading to stress if they achieve milestones later than peers.
Learning
Process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences
Application: Learning occurs through various methods, including observation, practice, and instruction.
Associative Learning
Learning that occurs when an association is made between two events or stimuli
Application: Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a response.
Stimulus
Any event or situation that evokes a response
Application: The sound of a bell can serve as a stimulus in a classical conditioning experiment.
Respondent Behavior
Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
Application: Salivating when food is placed in front of you is an example of respondent behavior.
Operant Behavior
Behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli
Application: A child cleaning their room to receive praise from parents is exhibiting operant behavior.
Cognitive Learning
Learning that involves mental processes and may occur without direct experience
Application: Observational learning is a form of cognitive learning where individuals learn by watching others.
Ivan Pavlov
Russian physiologist known for his work in classical conditioning
Application: Pavlov's experiments with dogs demonstrated how neutral stimuli can be conditioned to elicit responses.
Classical Conditioning
Learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit similar responses
Application: A dog learns to salivate at the sound of a bell after it has been repeatedly paired with food.
John B. Watson
American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism
Application: Watson's famous 'Little Albert' experiment demonstrated classical conditioning in humans.
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