flashcards AP Psychology Unit 3 (Developmental Psychology)

Developmental Psychology

Scientific study of how and why humans grow, change, and adapt across their lifespan

Application: Developmental psychologists study how children's cognitive abilities change as they progress through Piaget's stages of development.

Cross-Sectional Study

Research method that compares different age groups at a single point in time

Application: Researchers might use a cross-sectional study to examine how cognitive abilities differ across various age groups.

Longitudinal Study

Research method that follows the same group of individuals over an extended period

Application: A longitudinal study might track the cognitive development of a group of children from early childhood through adolescence.

Teratogens

Environmental agents that can cause birth defects when a fetus is exposed during pregnancy

Application: Alcohol is a teratogen that can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome when consumed by pregnant women.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

Group of birth defects caused by maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy

Application: Children with FAS may exhibit facial abnormalities, growth deficiencies, and cognitive impairments.

Habituation

Decreased response to a repeated stimulus

Application: Infants demonstrate habituation when they stop responding to a repeated sound or visual stimulus.

Maturation

Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior

Application: A child's ability to walk is largely dependent on the maturation of their motor skills.

Critical Period

Specific time during development when certain experiences or events have a particularly strong impact

Application: There is a critical period for language acquisition, where children more easily learn languages than adults.

Adolescence

Transitional stage of physical and psychological development between childhood and adulthood

Application: During adolescence, individuals experience significant changes in their bodies, emotions, and social relationships.

Puberty

Period of physical changes through which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction

Application: During puberty, boys experience voice deepening and girls begin menstruation.

Menopause

Period of time when women stop having menstrual cycles

Application: Women going through menopause may experience hot flashes and mood changes as their bodies adjust to hormonal shifts.

Sex

Biological characteristics that define males and females

Application: Sex is determined by chromosomes, with XX typically resulting in female and XY in male.

Gender

Socially constructed roles, behaviors, and attributes that a society considers appropriate for men and women

Application: Gender roles may influence career choices, with some professions being traditionally associated with a particular gender.

Intersex

Individuals born with reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn't fit typical definitions of female or male

Application: An intersex person might have chromosomes that don't match their external genitalia.

Aggression

Behavior intended to cause harm to another individual

Application: A child pushing another child on the playground is an example of physical aggression.

Relational Aggression

Form of aggression aimed at damaging social relationships or social status

Application: Spreading rumors or excluding someone from a social group are examples of relational aggression.

Carol Gilligan

American psychologist known for her work on moral development and ethical relationships

Application: Gilligan's research challenged Kohlberg's theory of moral development by highlighting gender differences in moral reasoning.

X Chromosome

Sex chromosome present in both males and females

Application: Females typically have two X chromosomes, while males have one X and one Y chromosome.

Y Chromosome

Sex chromosome present only in males

Application: The presence of a Y chromosome typically leads to male development in humans.

Testosterone

Primary male sex hormone

Application: During puberty, increased testosterone levels in boys lead to deepening of the voice and growth of facial hair.

Estrogens

Group of hormones responsible for female sexual development and reproduction

Application: Estrogen levels in women fluctuate during the menstrual cycle, influencing mood and physical changes.

Primary Sex Characteristics

Physical features directly related to reproduction

Application: Ovaries in females and testes in males are examples of primary sex characteristics.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Physical features that distinguish the sexes but are not directly involved in reproduction

Application: Breast development in females and facial hair growth in males are secondary sex characteristics.

Spermarche

First ejaculation in males

Application: Spermarche typically occurs during puberty and marks the beginning of male fertility.

Menarche

First menstrual period in females

Application: The age of menarche can be influenced by factors such as nutrition and physical activity.

Role

Set of behaviors, rights, and obligations associated with a social position

Application: The role of a teacher includes instructing students, grading assignments, and maintaining classroom discipline.

Gender Role

Set of behaviors, attitudes, and activities expected or considered appropriate for a specific gender

Application: Traditional gender roles might expect women to be nurturing and men to be assertive.

Sexual Aggression

Any sexual activity carried out against a person's will

Application: Sexual harassment in the workplace is a form of sexual aggression.

Gender Identity

Person's internal sense of being male, female, or another gender

Application: A transgender person's gender identity does not match the sex they were assigned at birth.

Social Learning Theory

Theory proposing that people learn by observing others' behavior and its consequences

Application: Children may learn gender-typical behaviors by observing and imitating their parents.

Gender Typing

Process of socialization by which children learn behaviors considered appropriate for their gender

Application: Parents might encourage boys to play with trucks and girls to play with dolls, contributing to gender typing.

Androgyny

Combination of masculine and feminine characteristics in one person

Application: An androgynous individual might display both assertiveness (traditionally masculine) and emotional sensitivity (traditionally feminine).

Sexuality

Capacity for sexual feelings and behaviors

Application: Sexuality encompasses various aspects, including sexual orientation, sexual behavior, and sexual identity.

Asexual

Person who experiences little or no sexual attraction to others

Application: An asexual individual might form romantic relationships but have little interest in sexual activity.

Alfred Kinsey

American biologist and sexologist who conducted groundbreaking research on human sexuality

Application: Kinsey's research led to the development of the Kinsey scale, which measures sexual orientation on a continuum.

Social Script

Culturally shared expectations about how to behave in specific social situations

Application: The social script for a first date might include expectations about who pays for the meal and whether a goodnight kiss is appropriate.

Alice Eagly

American social psychologist known for her work on gender roles and stereotypes

Application: Eagly's social role theory suggests that gender stereotypes arise from the distribution of men and women into different social roles.

Sexual Orientation

Pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attraction to men, women, both genders, or neither gender

Application: Homosexuality, heterosexuality, and bisexuality are examples of sexual orientations.

Jean Piaget

Swiss psychologist known for his work on child development

Application: Piaget's theory of cognitive development describes how children's thinking evolves through different stages.

Cognition

Mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and comprehension

Application: Problem-solving, decision-making, and memory are all aspects of cognition.

Schema

Mental framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information

Application: A child's schema for 'dog' might include four legs, fur, and barking.

Assimilation

Process of incorporating new information into existing schemas

Application: A child who learns that a whale is a mammal, not a fish, assimilates this information into their existing schema of mammals.

Accommodation

Process of changing existing schemas to fit new information

Application: When a child first encounters a platypus, they might need to accommodate their schema of mammals to include egg-laying animals.

Sensorimotor Stage

First stage of Piaget's theory, from birth to about 2 years, where infants understand the world through sensory experiences and motor actions

Application: An infant learning that shaking a rattle produces sound is in the sensorimotor stage.

Object Permanence

Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they can't be seen

Application: A baby who looks for a toy hidden under a blanket demonstrates object permanence.

Preoperational Stage

Second stage of Piaget's theory, from about 2 to 7 years, characterized by symbolic thinking and egocentrism

Application: A child using a banana as a pretend telephone is displaying symbolic thinking in the preoperational stage.

Conservation

Understanding that certain properties of an object remain the same despite changes in appearance

Application: A child who understands that the amount of water remains the same when poured from a tall, thin glass into a short, wide glass has mastered conservation.

Egocentrism

Inability to see situations from another person's point of view

Application: A young child might hide by covering their eyes, believing that if they can't see others, others can't see them.

Concrete Operational Stage

Third stage of Piaget's theory, from about 7 to 11 years, characterized by logical thinking about concrete situations

Application: Children in this stage can understand that 5+3=8 and 8-3=5, demonstrating reversibility of thought.

Formal Operational Stage

Final stage of Piaget's theory, from about 11 years onward, characterized by abstract and hypothetical thinking

Application: Adolescents in this stage can engage in complex moral reasoning and consider hypothetical scenarios.

Lev Vygotsky

Russian psychologist known for his sociocultural theory of cognitive development

Application: Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development influences educational practices that involve scaffolding.

Scaffold

Temporary support provided to help a learner accomplish a task

Application: A teacher might scaffold a student's writing by providing an outline or guiding questions.

Theory of Mind

Ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others

Application: A child with theory of mind understands that others can have beliefs different from their own.

Language

Structured system of communication used by humans

Application: Language allows us to express complex ideas, emotions, and experiences to others.

Noam Chomsky

American linguist known for his theory of universal grammar

Application: Chomsky's work has influenced our understanding of how children acquire language so rapidly and effortlessly.

Phoneme

Smallest unit of sound that can distinguish one word from another in a language

Application: The words 'bat' and 'pat' differ by only one phoneme, the initial consonant sound.

Morpheme

Smallest meaningful unit in a language

Application: The word 'unhappy' contains two morphemes: 'un-' (meaning 'not') and 'happy.'

Grammar

Set of structural rules governing the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in a language

Application: Understanding grammar allows us to form coherent sentences and communicate effectively.

Universal Grammar (UG)

Theory proposing that the ability to learn grammar is hard-wired into the brain

Application: UG might explain why children can learn any language they're exposed to during early childhood.

Babbling Stage

Period in language development when infants produce various speech-like sounds

Application: A 6-month-old baby making 'ba-ba-ba' sounds is in the babbling stage.

One-Word Stage

Period in language development when children use single words to express entire thoughts

Application: A toddler saying 'milk' to mean 'I want milk' is in the one-word stage.

Two-Word Stage

Period in language development when children begin to combine two words to express more complex ideas

Application: A child saying 'mommy go' to mean 'Mommy is leaving' is in the two-word stage.

Telegraphic Speech

Speech consisting of only the most essential words

Application: A child saying 'want cookie' instead of 'I want a cookie' is using telegraphic speech.

Aphasia

Language disorder caused by damage to specific brain areas

Application: A person with Broca's aphasia might understand speech but struggle to produce fluent speech.

Paul Broca

French physician who discovered the speech production center of the brain

Application: Broca's discovery of the area in the frontal lobe responsible for speech production advanced our understanding of language processing in the brain.

Broca's Area

Region in the frontal lobe of the brain involved in speech production

Application: Damage to Broca's area can result in difficulty producing speech while still understanding language.

Carl Wernicke

German neurologist who discovered the brain region involved in language comprehension

Application: Wernicke's work complemented Broca's, providing a more complete picture of language processing in the brain.

Wernicke's Area

Region in the temporal lobe of the brain involved in language comprehension

Application: Damage to Wernicke's area can result in fluent speech that lacks meaning.

Linguistic Determinism

Strong form of linguistic relativity proposing that language determines thought

Application: The hypothesis that speakers of languages with many words for snow perceive snow differently due to their language.

Benjamin Lee Whorf

American linguist known for his work on linguistic relativity

Application: Whorf's studies of Hopi language led him to propose that language shapes perception and thought.

Linguistic Relativism

Weaker form of linguistic relativity proposing that language influences thought

Application: The idea that the grammatical gender of nouns in some languages might influence how speakers perceive those objects.

Ecological Systems Theory

Theory proposed by Urie Bronfenbrenner that emphasizes the influence of environmental systems on development

Application: A child's development is influenced by their immediate family (microsystem) as well as broader societal factors (macrosystem).

Stranger Anxiety

Fear or wariness of unfamiliar people that typically develops in infants around 8 months of age

Application: An 8-month-old baby crying when approached by an unfamiliar adult is displaying stranger anxiety.

Attachment

Emotional bond between an infant and caregiver

Application: Secure attachment in infancy is associated with better social and emotional outcomes later in life.

Harry Harlow

American psychologist known for his experiments on maternal separation and social isolation in rhesus monkeys

Application: Harlow's experiments demonstrated the importance of comfort and contact in infant development, beyond mere feeding.

Margaret Harlow

American psychologist who collaborated with Harry Harlow on primate research

Application: The Harlows' work challenged the prevailing behaviorist view that infant attachment was simply a learned response to feeding.

Imprinting

Rapid learning that occurs during a critical period, typically soon after birth

Application: Goslings following the first moving object they see after hatching, even if it's not their mother, is an example of imprinting.

Konrad Lorenz

Austrian zoologist known for his work on imprinting in animals

Application: Lorenz's experiments with geese demonstrated how imprinting occurs and its importance in animal behavior.

Mary Ainsworth

American-Canadian developmental psychologist known for her work on attachment theory

Application: Ainsworth's Strange Situation procedure is used to assess attachment styles in young children.

Strange Situation

Procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth to assess attachment styles in young children

Application: In the Strange Situation, researchers observe how a child reacts to being separated from and reunited with their caregiver.

Secure Attachment

Attachment style characterized by trust in the caregiver's availability and responsiveness

Application: A securely attached child might be distressed when separated from their caregiver but easily comforted upon reunion.

Insecure Attachment

Attachment styles characterized by anxiety, avoidance, or disorganization in the child-caregiver relationship

Application: An insecurely attached child might show little distress when separated from their caregiver or be difficult to comfort upon reunion.

Temperament

Individual differences in emotional reactivity and self-regulation that appear early in life

Application: A child with an 'easy' temperament might adapt quickly to new situations, while a child with a 'difficult' temperament might be more easily upset by changes.

Erik Erikson

German-American psychologist known for his theory of psychosocial development

Application: Erikson's stages of psychosocial development describe conflicts that individuals must resolve throughout their lifespan.

Basic Trust

First stage in Erikson's theory, where infants develop a sense of whether the world is a safe and reliable place

Application: Consistent and responsive caregiving helps infants develop basic trust.

Self-Concept

Individual's beliefs about themselves, including their attributes and who and what the self is

Application: A child's self-concept might include beliefs about their abilities, their likes and dislikes, and their role in their family.

Diana Baumrind

American developmental psychologist known for her research on parenting styles

Application: Baumrind identified authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting styles, which have different effects on child development.

Social Identity

Part of an individual's self-concept derived from their membership in social groups

Application: A person might identify strongly with their cultural background, which contributes to their social identity.

Intimacy

Close, familiar, and usually affectionate or loving personal relationships

Application: Developing intimacy in romantic relationships involves sharing personal thoughts and feelings with a partner.

Emerging Adulthood

Developmental stage between adolescence and full-fledged adulthood, typically from ages 18 to 25

Application: Emerging adults often explore various life paths, including education, career options, and relationships.

Social Clock

Cultural timetable for when major life events should occur, such as marriage and parenthood

Application: Individuals may feel pressure to conform to the social clock, leading to stress if they achieve milestones later than peers.

Learning

Process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences

Application: Learning occurs through various methods, including observation, practice, and instruction.

Associative Learning

Learning that occurs when an association is made between two events or stimuli

Application: Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a response.

Stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response

Application: The sound of a bell can serve as a stimulus in a classical conditioning experiment.

Respondent Behavior

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Application: Salivating when food is placed in front of you is an example of respondent behavior.

Operant Behavior

Behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli

Application: A child cleaning their room to receive praise from parents is exhibiting operant behavior.

Cognitive Learning

Learning that involves mental processes and may occur without direct experience

Application: Observational learning is a form of cognitive learning where individuals learn by watching others.

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist known for his work in classical conditioning

Application: Pavlov's experiments with dogs demonstrated how neutral stimuli can be conditioned to elicit responses.

Classical Conditioning

Learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit similar responses

Application: A dog learns to salivate at the sound of a bell after it has been repeatedly paired with food.

John B. Watson

American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism

Application: Watson's famous 'Little Albert' experiment demonstrated classical conditioning in humans.