PHL 100 Midterm (UAB w/ Josh May)

Metaphysics

study of nature, existence, reality, etc.

• Ex: do you have free will?

• Ex: could machines think?

Epistemology

study of knowledge (including justification, evidence, reasons for belief, etc.(

• Ex: how do i know i’m not dreaming?

• Ex: how can we distinguish knowledge from opinion or belief?

What’s philosophy?

it’s defined by “a goal and a method”

• goal: “a systematic world view” that’s rational, reasonable & justified

Conceptual analysis

providing necessary & sufficient conditions for a concept

Interdisciplinary research

tool used in arguments

• draws from what know in other fields like cognitive science, math, psychology, etc.

Thought experiments

tool used in arguments

• hypothetical scenarios used to make a point

What’s an argument?

set of statements (or claims) one of which (the conclusion) appears to be supported by the other statements (the premises)

Statement/claim

sentence made that can be classified as true/false, asserted or believed

Premise

a statement (or claim) which appears to prove & give reason for OR provide evidence for another statement

Indicators of a premise

• “since”

• “because”

• “given that”

• “owing to“

• “seeing that”

Conclusion

a statement (or claim) which appears to be supported by the premise(s)

Indicators of a conclusion

• “therefore”

• “thus”

• “consequently

• “entails that”

• “it follows that”

Deductive argument

type of argument

• an argument where the premises provide the strongest possible evidence for conclusion; tries to prove with absolute certainty

Non-deductive/inductive argument

type of argument

• an argument where the premises provide support for the conclusion but it doesn’t prove it beyond doubt

What’s a good argument?

one that has: GOOD form + ALL true premises

What does good form mean?

if premises are true, they can support the conclusion; basically validity

What does true premises mean?

when the claims are accurate/likely/plausible

What was Roskies’ stance on neuroscience and free will?

that cognitive neuroscience have little or no affect when it comes to free will

Determinism

past combined w/ laws of nature casually determine a unique state of affairs

• ex: Eren Jaeger in AOT; his entire life and future was already “determined” for him—his choices are shaped by things that have already happened (and that he’s seen in his visions)

• it’s also neither fate nor bypassing “fate”

Epihenominalism (“above the phenomenon”)

mental states (e.g. decisions) are physically caused but have no physical effects

• Ex: the engine (brain) pulls a train forward & the whistle (mind/consciousness) makes a sound which doesn’t affect the train’s movement

Incompatibilism (aka Libertarians)

view that states if determinism is true, we can’t have both true free will AND be responsible for our actions

• Ex: “If you can’t do anything BUT steal, how can you be held responsible?”

Compatibilism

view that states if determinism is true, we can have both true free will AND be responsible for our actions

Indeterminism

past combined w/ laws of nature don’t casually determine future state of affairs

• states that events instead happen at random

Luck Problem

states that randomness in how decisions are made contradicts “free will”

• if choices happen randomly, how can we be responsible for them?

• ex: brain is seen like a coin flip where heads says “steal something” and tails says “don’t steal and brain randomizes it—if the coin flip determines your action, how was it free will?

Principle of Alternative Possibilities

states a “person is morally responsible for what he’s done only if he was capable of doing otherwise”

• criticized by Frankfurt

What’s the Ken Parks case?

• he was a murderer in Canada

• committed homicide + assault on parents-in-law) while sleepwalking

• was acquitted/set free b/c he was deemed unaware of what he was doing

Alien Hand Syndrome

condition where a part of the body (usually hand) seems to act on its own w/o individual’s control

Frankfurt’s Deep Self Theory

states that you act freely/responsibly only when your actions result from a motivation you want to have

• Ex: an unwilling addict shouldn’t be held accountable/responsible because they DON’T want to want to be an addict; they actively WANT to be better

What’s the “deep self”?

considered not just any part of you, but a part that “speaks for you”; basically contains your core beleifs and values

• pathway: deep self approves → motivation → action

What did Wolf believe?

• she rejected Frankfurt’s Deep Self theory

• proposed that sanity is needed (understanding right from wrong) in order to be held morally responsible

What’s Wolf’s case of Jojo?

• Jojo is a child of ruthless dictator, Jo

• trained to be a dictator himself

• deep self is malicious

• doesn’t understand/know right from wrong (lack of sanity)

• Wolf says: Jojo can’t be morally responsible

What does Descartes mean by “I think, therefore I am” (corgito ergo sum)?

it means the act of thinking is undeniable proof of one’s existence—thought can’t be doubted, even if everything else can

Dualism

view that mind (thinking, non-physical) and body (physical, extension) are 2 different things

• founded by Descartes

What was Princess Elisabeth’s critique?

she raised the interaction problem: “how can a non-physical mind affect a physical body“

Mind-Body Problem

It asks how mental and physical states relate; are they the same or fundamentally different?

Monism

belief that there’s only 1 kind of substance in universe; either physical or mental

Physicalism (materialism)

type of Monism; states that only physical state/things exist in universe

• ex: an apple on a table is made of atoms; it exists even if no one’s looking at it

Idealism

type of Monism; states that only mental state/things exist in universe

• ex: an apple on a table only exists b/c you’re perceiving it; if no one is there to see, touch or think about the apple—then it won’t exist

Functionalism

theory stating that mental states are defined by what they do (their function) and not what they’re made of

• Ex: a mental state like “pain” is seen as “functional: b/c it’s associated w/ bodily injury, a desire to remove the pain, and potentially wincing or moaning

What’s multiple realizability

the idea that the same mental states (like pain) can be realized/found in different materials—e.g. humans, aliens, or machines

Turing test

a test where if a machine can converse indistinguishably from a human, it’s said to “think”

What does Turing believe about machine intelligence?

machines can think if they can perform the same functional tasks humans do, even if they’re made differently

What kinds of experiences support Dualism?

out of body experiences, afterlife, reincarnation, etc.

Phineas Gage case

• man who experienced brain damage that signifcanlyty changed his personality

• his case showed a strong link btwn physical brain and mental life

What’s Singer’s main argument?

that we’re morally obligated to help the global poor if we can do it without sacrificing anything important

Utilitarianism

a moral theory stating the right action is the one that maximizes overall happiness and minimizes suffering

Consequentialism

view that morality is determined only by the consequences

• ex: lying is acceptable if it’s for the greater good

Dora example

hypothetical situation where a woman sells a child for money, then regrets it and saves him

• Singer uses this to show we often ignore suffering when it’s not directly in front of us

Bugatti example

hypothetical situation where a man lets a child die to save his luxury car

• Singer argues this is morally equal to choosing luxuries over saving lives through charity

Permissible

morally acceptable actions

• ex: wearing a hat or sunglasses indoors

Supererogatory

morally good actions that go above & beyond (praise worthy) but are not required

• ex: donating to a charity

Objection to Singer: “It’s not my fault they’re poor”

Singer replies: “true, but it’s still wrong to ignore them if you can help”

Objection to Singer: “I earned my money”

Singer replies: “you’re still responsible for how you choose to use it”

Objection to Singer: “Charities waste money”

Singer replies: “choose reputable, effective ones—many do great work.”

Objection to Singer: “Too demanding; I can’t even go out/spoil myself?”

Singer replies: “morality can be demanding, but there’s a reasonable limit; some sacrifice is expected”

Trolley Problem/Dilemma

a thought experiment with many variations testing if it’s morally okay to sacrifice 1 life to save multiple other lives

• Founded by Philippa Foot

Deontology

moral theory focused on duty, intentions, and respecting people—not just outcomes

• ex: following the rules, paying taxes, not committing crimes, respect strangers, etc.

Applied ethics

layer/branch of ethics; concerns specific moral issues (e.g. abortion, euthanasia)

Normative ethics

layer/branch of ethics; focuses on theories that explain what’s systematically wrong or right (e.g. utilitarianism)

Metaethics

layer/branch of ethics; focuses on nature of morality itself (e.g. “is lying really wrong or is it just a matter of opinion?”)

What’s Mengzi’s view on morality?

morality means extending kindness beyond family and friends to all people; “love thy neighbor”

Epistemic Peer

someone who’s equally rational and informed as you about a moral topic

What’s McGrath’s argument?

only when epistemic peers disagree on a controversial moral belief, it’s likely that belief doesn’t count as knowledge

Circular Reasoning/Question-begging (moral experts objection)

McGrath says that relying on moral experts is flawed if we define “experts” by agreeing with our existing beliefs that are the ones already in question

“Switch” trolley case

hypothetical situation asking if it’s permissible to flip lane switch to sacrifice 1 life to save 5

“Footbridge” trolley case

hypothetical situation asking if it’s permissible to push an overweight person in front of a trolley in order to stop the train from hitting 5 people

Solipsism

view that I (the holder of the view) am the only thinking thing