Achievement-Ability Discrepancy
most often determined by a comparison between scores on standardized intelligence and achievement tests
comprehension monitoring
the ability of learners to sense when they themselves are not comprehending textual material
constructivism
a student-centered learning theory suggesting that students develop their own individual understanding of ideas; emphasizes the subjective over the objective
Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM)
a means to monitor academic progress, involving direct and frequent samples of performance on items from the curriculum
discovery learning
a student-centered learning theory that often uses activities or Socratic dialogue, prompting students to explore and experience their own eureka moments
dyscalculia
a learning disability that concerns mathematics; now recognized to be just as prevalent or at least a close second to reading disabilities
dysfunction
describes issues with the central nervous system (CNS) in those with learning disabilities; recognizes that the brain may not function normally even absent damage or injury to brain tissue
dysgraphia
a learning disability that concerns the more mechanical areas of handwriting
executive functioning (EF)
an umbrella term covering cognitive processes that are necessary to control and regulate one’s behavior; self-regulation; EF skills: working memory (WM), behavioral inhibition, and mental flexibility
familiality studies
examination of the degree to which a certain condition occurs in a single family
graphic organizers
visual devices that employ lines, circles, and boxes to arrange information
heritability studies
examination of the prevalence of inherited disabilities, especially in identical twins
interindividual variation
heterogeneity of learning disabilities among students
intraindividual variation
variability within a student’s own profile of abilities, perhaps being on grade level in one area but below grade level in another area
learning disabilities
the largest category of special education (the condition of about half of all special education students); those with the condition testing within the normal range of intelligence; four criteria: persistent academic problems, substantial achievement-ability discrepancy, learning difficulties developing early and perhaps manifesting under stress, learning difficulties not due to other disabilities
long-term memory
involves the storage and recall of information over an extended period
metacognition
thinking about thinking; involves one’s ability to determine when he understands what is being taught; also involves recognizing one’s own struggles
phonological awareness
understanding that speech can be broken down into units of words, syllables, and phonemes
pragmatics
the social uses of language
reading comprehension
the ability to gain meaning from print; the ultimate goal of reading
reading fluency
the ability to read effortlessly and smoothly
Response to Intervention (RTI)
the preferred way of identifying learning disabilities per the reauthorization of IDEA in 2004; assesses the intervention of EBI; implemented by or in development by virtually all states
scaffolded instruction
assisting students when first learning tasks and then gradually reducing assistance to foster independence; gradual release of responsibility (GRR)
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
determined by three criteria per the American Psychiatric Association (APA): inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity; widely recognized as one of the most frequent reasons, if not the most frequent reason, children with behavioral problems are referred to guidance clinics
basal ganglia
buried deep within the brain; responsible for coordination and control of motor behavior (like the cerebellum)
behavioral inhibition
impulsivity; an inability to wait one’s turn, to refrain from interrupting, to resist distractions, to delay gratification and work for long-term rewards; overreacting to negative or positive experiences
cerebellum
relatively small, constituting only about 10% of the mass of the brain; contains more than half of all the brain’s neurons; responsible for the coordination and control of motor behavior (like the basal ganglia)
diagnosing ADHD
involves four components: medical examination, clinical interview, rating scales, and clinical observation
gender trends in ADHD
boys identified more often (2-1) than girls, perhaps because boys exhibit the highly noticeable hyperactive or impulsive type of ADHD, whereas girls are more likely to exhibit the inattentive type
genetic studies in ADHD
implicate multiple genes; indicate parents and siblings 4 to 8 times more likely to have ADHD; reveal identical twins to be almost 2 times more likely to both have ADHD than fraternal twins
hyperactivity
an ADHD symptom involving fidgeting, leaving seat at inappropriate times, talking excessively; not regarded as being the primary deficit in ADHD
impulsivity
an ADHD symptom involving problems awaiting one’s turn, interrupting others
inattention
an ADHD symptom involving trouble paying attention to details, difficulty sustaining attention, problems with organization, distractable
medication for ADHD
one of the most controversial topics in all of special education
mental flexibility
the ability to adjust one’s behavior to adapt to changes in others’ behavior or the environment
neuroimaging
producing images of activity in the brain or nervous system
neurotransmitters
chemicals that help send messages between neurons in the brain; two kinds: dopamine and noradrenaline, both involved in ADHD
pedagogy for ADHD
tips involving the following actions: schedule, organize everyday items, use homework and notebook organizers, be clear and consistent, and give praise or rewards when rules are followed
prefrontal, frontal lobes
located in the front of the brain; responsible for executive functions
Ritalin
the most common stimulant prescribed for ADHD; 30% of users reporting unfavorable response
comorbidity
the co-occurrence of two or more conditions in the same individual; common for those with EBD
externalizing behavior
a dimension of EBD that involves striking out against others; the most common EBD conduct disorder and the easiest to identify
internalizing behavior
a dimension of EBD that involves mental or emotional conflicts such as depression and anxiety; more difficult to recognize
risk-lowering factors for EBD
involves effective instruction, consistent discipline, warm relationships, and skills (social and problem-solving)
temperament
biologically determined behavioral style; present at birth, but may be changed by one’s rearing
autistic
refers to individuals who have withdrawn from the fabric of social life into the self; from the Greek word autosmeaning “self”
Asperger syndrome
the ASD condition of someone whose intellectual and verbal abilities are relatively high but still has problems with social communication and/or repetitive/restricted behaviors; not recognized by DSM-5 as a separate category of ASD; rarely diagnosed in preschool years
communication issues of ASD
showing little interest in communicative intent; speaking with robotic tones; parroting; exhibiting echolalia, reversing pronouns (e.g., confusing you and I; referring to oneself in the third person); being overly literal
communicative intent
the desire to communicate for social purposes
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5 (DSM-5)
the gold standard for diagnosing ASD; produced by the American Psychiatric Association (APA)
echolalia
repetition of words and phrases
Grandin, Temple
perhaps the most well-known person with ASD; in school “saved” by her science teacher
joint attention
the process by which an individual alerts another person to a stimulus via nonverbal means, such as gazing or pointing
pedagogy for ASD
educational programming that includes three components: direct instruction of skills in a natural setting with behavioral management as needed; assessment of two components: language development and social/adaptive behavior
prevalence of ASD
5 times higher for boys than girls; occurs in all socioeconomic, ethnic, and racial groups; increased prevalence caused by a widening of the criteria used to diagnose autism, a greater awareness of autism, and diagnostic substitution (diagnosing ASD, instead of intellectual disabilities or developmental language disorders)
refrigerator moms
Bruno Bettelheim’s term for cold and unresponsive mothers; led to blaming parents for ASD; not viewed as a radical notion at first
social issues of ASD
smiling or laughing off cue; avoiding eye contact or looking out of the corner of the eyes; being preoccupied with objects; being inept at reading social cues