History Test 1

• Why did states first develop in grain-growing areas

• Because grain produced a large harvest that was visible, ripened all at once, and was storable, making it easy for officials sent by those in charge of tax.

• What was the primary function of writing when it was first developed?

• The primary function of writing was to maintain records for trade and agriculture.

• Cuneiform

• Why do some historians now reject the use of the word "civilization"? In your opinion, is this a good concept to use when studying various societies, or should we reject this concept?

• Some historians chose to not use the word civilization because it could imply superiority to other societies. 

• this word can be helpful in some contexts but should be avoided when using it label societies. 

  • Some societies might not fit into the Dictionary definition of a civilization because they has less developed writing systems or governments. they could still excel in other categories like culture.

Mesopotamia Meaning

• It means "land between rivers" in Greek

• The City-States of Sumer

• 12 independent city-states by 3000 BCE

• 20,000+ residents in each city-state

• Massive hydraulic projects (reservoirs, dams, and dikes) irrigated the arid climate

• Often surrounded by walls that kept out intruders

Mesopotamia Region

• region located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and is often considered the cradle of civilization, known for its early developments in writing, architecture, and governance.

ziggurats

Temple complexes built on tall platforms dominated the center of the cities

polytheism

Sumerians believed that many different gods and goddesses controlled the worldand influenced various aspects of life, such as agriculture, weather, and fertility.

• Religion in Sumer

• Priests played a central role in Sumerian society

• In addition to being religious leaders, priests managed the irrigation systems

• Sumerian Politics

• Over time kings began to rule over the Sumerian city-states

• Kings most likely started out as temporary leaders during times of crisis

• Temporary power gradually became permanent kingship, and kings began handing down the kingship to their sons, establishing patriarchal hereditary dynasties

• Sumerian Writing

• CUNEIFORM

• Writing developed as a way for elites to keep track of people and goods

• Earliest writing was all lists

• Writing began as pictographs and evolved to become ideograms. 

• What is the purpose of the code of Hammurabi?

• Laws for Babylonian society

• Tool to unify expanding empire

• “That the strong might not injure the weak.”

• Allowed everyone to know the rules

• How is the Hammurabi’s code reflective of social class structures? How does it promote both equality and inequality?

• Equality- Everyone has to follow the same set of rules 

• Inequality- Some punishments for people of higher rank were less severe than people of lower rank 

• What are some limitations of Hammurabi’s code as evidence of life in Babylonia?

• We don't know if everyone actually followed the rules 

• Why could the Nile be considered a blessing and a great danger?

• The Nile was a blessing because its annual floods brought water that helped crops grow, making a good harvest and food for the people.

• danger- 

  • if the flood didn’t come, there would be famine and hunger across the land

  • Cannibalism and chaos 

  • when the water was too strong it could destroy everything in its path

What massive project was completed under Menes’s reign?

• He completed a massive dam to stop the city from overflowing

• List the various uses of the Nile?

• only place in the sahara desert that has a steady supply of water

• Farmers settle on bank

• Humans would survive it it wasn't for the nile 

• Reason why the world's first empire started there

• Egyptians used the river for transportation

• Who was Djoser’s architect?

• Imhopet was the chief architect, treasurer, and the priest 

• he wanted to build the biggest pyramid 

• Why was Djoser’s temple revolutionary?

• He built the temple using stone rather than mud

• What kind of food and accommodations did workers receive in exchange for their labor?

• Food, beer, clothing, and tax breaks.

• women were drafted to keep the men fed and clothed 

• 10,000 workmen

Meydum

• It was one of Snefru's early pyramid projects.

  • Initially started as a step pyramid but was changed to have smooth sides made of limestone

  • It collapsed due to the smooth surface

  • marks a big stage in the development of pyramid construction.

Dashur

• Build by Snefru

• The Bent Pyramid has an angle change halfway up 

• wasn't completely successful as a true pyramid.

• Red Pyramid- 

• largest pyramid there.

• It is the first pyramid to be fully completed with smooth sides.

• Its designs were used for future pyramids 

  • slope 

• How were the large stone slabs transported for the pyramids?

• Large stone slabs transported using sleds.

• These sleds were pulled across the ground

  • lubricated with water to reduce friction.

• The stones were also moved up ramps to transport them to higher levels of the pyramid.

• What were Sesostris’ three objectives?

• Secure Egypt's southern border.

• Control trade routes in Nubia.

• Steal Nubian gold.

• What were the Nubians renowned for?

• Expert archers.

• They were known as "pupil shooters,"

• Known for rich deposits of gold

• What occurred in the Middle Kingdom that disrupted the stability of Egypt?

environmental changes leading to food shortages, political fragmentation between regional powers, foreign invasions by the Hyksos, and internal conflicts regarding leadership

How was Hatshepsut able to rule Egypt?

• after Thutmose II’s death.

• Thutmose III was a child, so she took control.

• Declared herself Pharaoh to secure her power.

• Why did Hatshepsut build obelisks all around Egypt?

• To showcase her power and legacy.

• To honor the sun god Ra.

• Who was Hatshepsut’s lover and architect?

• Senenmut.

• He helped design her temple.

• What happened to Hatshepsut’s statues and obelisks after she died, and why?

• Statues and obelisks were destroyed.

• Thutmose erased her to strengthen his rule.

1. Explain the three theories of pyramid construction.

1. Single Ramp- One massive straight ramp on a single side of the pyramid

2. Revolving Ramp- A spiral was built around the pyramid

3. Combination- A mix of the use of both

What occurred in the Middle Kingdom that disrupted the stability of Egypt

• Invasion of the Hyksos

• Economic decline

• Natural disasters

• Rebellion of nomarchs

• What did Amenhotep IV change his name to?

• Akhenaten meaning “Severant of Aten”

What were the Nubians renowned for?

Nubians were renowned for their superb archery skills, making them some of the best archers in the ancient world.

• What breakthrough did Amenhotep IV achieved did under his reign?

Akhenaten introduced the use of small limestone blocks called "talatat," allowing faster building

• What was  Amenhotep’s downfall?

• Akhenaten's focus on religion led to neglect of Egypt’s empire and weakened his rule.

• What happened after he died?

After his death, Akhenaten was largely rejected, and his city was abandoned.

• Who was the next Pharaoh after Akhenaten?

• The next Pharaoh was his son, Tutankhaten

  • 9 years old 

• Made many adjustments to his fathers former reign

• How did Set I re-establish order in Egypt?

• Conquest and construction was his strategy 

• Commishied the legendary hypostyle hall

  • one of the wonders of ancient architecture 

• Restored Egypt’s military power and launched strikes into Syria and palestine

• Why is Seti I tomb unique?

• Very elaborate with depictions of gods (Ra) with a complex layout to protect against water and tomb robbers 

• Many different material used and inscriptions

• What did Ramses II excel at?

excelled in not only love but in war

• Who did Ramses II attack?

• He attacked the Hittite Kingdom in Syria with 20000 men

  • largest known force

What happened to Egypt after Ramses II died?

• Egypt's power began to decline.

• The Nile River (location, features)

• The Nile River is the longest river in the world

• length of over 4,000 miles, and made civilization possible in Egypt and Nubia.

• made up of two tributaries that met in Nubia

• The Nile starts in the south near the modern-day city of Khartoum, Sudan. It flows to the north where it ends at the Mediterranean Sea.

• The northern boundary of the Nile was at the river delta, where the Nile separated into several smaller branches and emptied into the Mediterranean Sea

• The Nile carried silt from the beginning of the river and dropped it at the delta where the water flow slowed down.

• Many Egyptians settled around the Nile Delta since the buildup of soil made the land great for agriculture.

• tributaries

• small rivers that flow into a larger river

• Delta

fan-shaped region created when soil is deposited at the end of a river

• Why did Egyptians live along the Nile River?

• Ancient Egypt had little rainfall- Nile was the primary water source 

• The Egyptians called their land Kemet, or the “Black Land,” due to the dark color of the fertile soil along the Nile. 

• The Nile flooded over its banks around the same time during summer and fall each year, so farmers could confidently plan their growing and harvesting seasons around this time.

• The Egyptians used irrigation to grow a surplus of food, just like the civilizations in Mesopotamia

• The Nile River was located nearby several natural barriers.

  • A natural barrier is any physical feature, such as a desert or mountain, that makes travel more difficult within or between civilizations.

  • Natural barriers protected the Egyptians and made it harder for rival civilizations to invade their lands.

• Regions of Egypt

•  originally divided into two regions called Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt, which each had their own separate kingdoms.

  • Upper Egypt: southern part of Egypt

  • Lower Egypt: northern part of Egypt

• Southern Egypt was referred to as the “upper” half because the Nile River started there, while northern Egypt was known as the “lower” half since the Nile ended there.

• Leaders of Egyptian Religion-Pharaohs and Priests

• The pharaoh and priests had a responsibility to observe the law of ma’at in order to please the gods and make life better across Egypt.

  • Example: The pharaoh could be accused of failing to maintain ma’at if the crops did not

Major Religions Beliefs in egypt

• The Egyptians believed in a concept called ma’at, which was the idea of a cosmic harmony and balance that existed on Earth and across the universe. (Ma’at was also represented as one of the Egyptian gods.)

• All people were expected to observe ma’at through good behavior and honoring their pharaoh and gods. Those who did would be rewarded with a peaceful afterlife.

  • Afterlife: life after death

Mummification

• The mummification process looked different based on the wealth and social status of the deceased person.

  • The expensive procedure included several steps such as removing the body’s organs, drying it out with salt, wrapping it, and burying it in a coffin called a sarcophagus. 

  • A more affordable option involved burying the body in a sand pit to dry out naturally in the desert.

What was the purpose of the pyramids?

• Pyramids were the burial sites for many pharaohs, along with all of their possessions that would help them live comfortably in the afterlife, including gold and jewelry.

• Hieroglyphics

• The Egyptians created one of the first writing systems in the world called hieroglyphics, which used symbols to communicate sounds, words, and ideas. 

  • Hieroglyphics were invented between 3200 BCE-3000 BCE, around the same time as cuneiform in Mesopotamia.

• Hieroglyphics were mostly used for formal writing, such as engravings on temples, tombs, and monuments. 

Theocracy

• The pharaoh was viewed as both a ruler and a god, which also made Egypt’s government a theocracy.

  • Theocracy: system of government ruled by religious leaders

  • The theocracy allowed pharaohs to use religion and their status as a god to justify their decisions to the people.

• The Old Kingdom

• The Egyptians built numerous pyramids for their pharaohs during this time, including the iconic Pyramids of Giza.

• The largest pyramid at Giza, also known as the Great Pyramid, belonged to a pharaoh named Khufu, who is one of the most famous pharaohs from the Old Kingdom.

• The Old Kingdom ended because many regional governors turned against the pharaohs, while a series of low floods from the Nile River caused mass starvation among the people. 

• The Middle Kingdom

• A pharaoh named Mentuhotep II reunified Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt after civil war during the First Intermediate Period.

• Egypt created its first permanent, full-time army during this time. They would later use it to conquer Kush and gain access to its gold and resources.

• There were new building projects, including more affordable pyramids and the start of temple construction at Karnak. 

• Some pharaohs began a policy called co-regency, where they would choose a successor and govern together to ensure a smooth transition of power.

• The Middle Kingdom ended after a group called the Hyksos invaded from Southwest Asia. They introduced technology that was previously unknown to the Egyptians, including chariots and bronze weapons.
  

• The New Kingdom

• The Egyptians pushed the Hyksos out of Egypt. Their fear of future invasions motivated them to expand their borders and become an empire.

  • The Egyptians moved into Southwest Asia and conquered the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, including the Phoenicians. They also moved south into Nubia and conquered Kush.

• Many of Egypt’s famous pharaohs ruled during this time.

• The New Kingdom ended after the priests in Egypt’s former capital of Thebes had gradually accumulated more wealth and power than the pharaohs, and eventually gained political control of Upper Egypt.

Hatshepsut

• Hatshepsut was one of a few female pharaohs in Egyptian history, who authorized several building projects and greatly increased Egypt’s wealth through trade with other civilizations.

• Akhenaten

• Akhenaten outlawed Egypt’s traditional polytheistic religion and replaced it with the worship of his favorite god called Aten. It may have been intended to hurt the priests of the god Amun, whose power had grown to rival the pharaoh.

• Top of Social Hierarchy in Ancient Egypt

• The pharaoh was usually at the top of the social hierarchy since they were both a monarch and a god.

• It was not possible for the pharaoh to be everywhere at once, so they would need the help of others to run the government.

Vizier

• second-in-command whose responsibilities included supervising the courts, tax collections, pyramid construction, and government officials

Priests

• caretakers of the temples who at times competed with the pharaoh for religious authority

Nomarchs

• local governors who controlled individual regions throughout Egypt and at times competed with the pharaoh for political power

Scribes

•  kept written records for the government and temples, while also creating stories and other literature. 

  • Scribes enjoyed a higher social status because only a small amount of Egypt’s population learned writing.

  • Doctors were usually former scribes because they needed to read medical texts for treating patients.

artisans

• There were several types of artisans in Ancient Egypt, such as builders, carpenters, jewelers, metalworkers, painters, sculptors, and stonecutters. 

  • Some people were merchants, or traders who exchanged the artisans’ goods for items from other civilizations.

Farmers

•  made up the majority of Egypt’s population and were often laborers on building projects during the flood season or soldiers in the army during wartime.

Enslaved people

• were usually prisoners of war from other civilizations, or individuals who were in debt.

• Roles of Women and Children 

• There was gender inequality between men and women in Egypt, as in most ancient civilizations, where women were mainly expected to take care of their homes and families. 

• Some women did work as artisans, doctors, scribes, priests, and government officials. 

• Women had more legal rights in Egypt than most other civilizations at the time. These included owning property, making contracts, and divorcing their husbands. 

• Children played with toys and learned sports such as swimming. Sons were expected to do the same job as their fathers when they became adults.

Social Heirachy