Crime - sociology

Durkheim - functionalist theory of crime

Crime is an inevitable part of society as not everyone is socialised the same. It serves positive functions: Boundary maintenance – unifies society through punishment and court processes; Adaptation and change – deviance initiates change and progression; Indicator – rising crime signals dysfunction. He argued there is a 'desirable level' of crime. Criticisms include: lacks clarity on what is 'desirable', not all punishment is functional, and crime may cause fear, not solidarity.

Merton - strain theory

Merton argues that deviance results from the strain between culturally encouraged goals and the institutional means to achieve them. The American Dream promotes success through legitimate means, but many are denied access. Responses: Conformity, Innovation, Ritualism, Retreatism, Rebellion. Criticisms: relies on official stats, ignores ruling class power, assumes value consensus, and only explains utilitarian crime.

Cloward and Ohlin - three subcultures

Agreeing with Merton, they argue that working-class youths are denied legitimate opportunities and respond via subcultures. Criminal subcultures offer organised crime careers; Conflict subcultures arise in disorganised areas and centre on violence; Retreatist subcultures involve drug use when other paths fail. Criticisms: oversimplifies boundaries between subcultures and assumes shared goals.

Becker - the social construction of crime

Deviance is a label applied by society. Social groups create deviance by making and enforcing rules. Moral entrepreneurs influence law-making, resulting in new outsiders and control agencies. Not all who offend are punished—outcomes depend on interactions, appearance, and context.

Cicourel - the negotiation of justice

Police stereotypes influence arrest decisions, often targeting working-class youths. Agencies reinforce these biases (e.g., broken homes). Justice is negotiable: middle-class youths are less likely to be charged due to their background and parental intervention.

Lemert - Primary and secondary deviance

Primary deviance is unlabelled and common. Secondary deviance results from societal labelling and can become a person’s master status, influencing future actions.

Gordon - Criminogenic Capitalism

Capitalism inherently causes crime through exploitation and poverty. Crime may be the only way to survive, gain goods, or relieve alienation. Greed also leads to corporate crime. Crime is systemic to capitalism, not limited to the working class.

Chambliss - State and Lawmaking

Laws protect private property, serving capitalism. Example: British East African colonies were forced into a money economy via taxation, controlling the population for landowners’ benefit.

Taylor et al - “The new criminology”

Neo-Marxists blend Marxism and labelling theory. They reject determinism and view crime as a meaningful political response. Aim to create a “fully social theory of deviance” addressing both structure and agency. Criticised as romanticising criminals and being too abstract.

Tombs - Scale and types of corporate crime

Corporate crime is widespread: includes financial crimes, consumer harm, workplace violations, environmental damage, and state-corporate crime. Underreported due to media, complexity, de-labelling, and victim unawareness.

Right realism

Crime results from biology, poor socialisation, and rational choice. Structural factors like poverty are dismissed. Policies focus on deterrence and strict control. Criticised for ignoring wider causes and overemphasising rationality.

Murray - underclass

The underclass, reliant on welfare, fails to socialise children. Lone mothers and absent fathers result in poorly disciplined boys who may turn to crime. Welfare dependency undermines social norms.

Clarke - rational choice theory

Crime is a rational decision based on costs vs. rewards. If benefits outweigh consequences, individuals offend. Perceived low risks explain rising crime.

Wilson and Kelling - zero tolerance

Minor disorder (e.g., graffiti) encourages serious crime. Zero tolerance restores order. Advocated proactive policing. Criticised for focusing on petty crime, enabling discrimination, and displacing crime.

Young - myth of zero tolerance

Argues New York’s falling crime was pre-existing and zero tolerance was a political myth. Police redefined deviance upwards due to lack of serious crime, targeting minor infractions to justify their role.

Lea and Young - the causes of crime

Crime stems from: Relative deprivation (feeling deprived vs. others), Subcultures (response to blocked opportunities), and Marginalisation (lack of goals/representation). Marginalised youths turn to crime to express frustration.

Young - late modernity, exclusion and crime

Post-1970s society is marked by insecurity, inequality, and exclusion. Cultural inclusion via media contrasts with economic exclusion. Meritocracy fails the poor, increasing frustration and crime.

Kinsey, Lea and Young - policing and control

Police inefficiency and public alienation reduce effectiveness. Argue for democratic policing shaped by community needs. Military-style policing erodes trust, especially among ethnic minorities.

Pollak - Chivalry Thesis

Criminal justice is more lenient towards women due to protective male attitudes. Women are more likely to receive non-custodial sentences and bail. However, underreporting of male crimes (e.g., sexual violence) is ignored.

Heidensohn - Bias against women

Courts enforce gender norms: girls are punished for sexual behaviour; non-conforming women face harsher treatment. Also argues patriarchal control restricts women’s offending opportunities (home, public, work). Critics say this underplays women’s agency.

Carlen - custodial sentences

Women are often sentenced based on gendered assessments (e.g., roles as mothers) rather than offence seriousness. Courts judge conformity to traditional roles.

Parsons - Functionalist sex role theory

Gender roles explain crime differences. Boys reject expressive roles and assert masculinity via aggression and deviance. Criticised for biological determinism and outdated gender assumptions.

Carlen - Class and gender deals

Working-class women are offered a 'class deal' (material reward via work) and a 'gender deal' (emotional reward via family). If these fail, crime becomes more likely. Based on women in poverty, abuse, or care.

Adler - Liberation thesis

Female liberation leads to more female crime, especially in male-dominated fields. Women adopt male roles in both legitimate and criminal spheres. Rise in female offending noted, but critics argue this predates liberation and mostly affects working-class women.

Messerschmidt - Masculinity and crime

Crime is a resource for ‘doing’ masculinity. Hegemonic masculinity is linked to aggression, sexism, and success. Examples: white MC boys act out outside school; WC boys turn to violence; black WC youths join gangs. Critics say it overgeneralises.

Winlow - postmodernity, masculinity and crime

Loss of traditional male jobs leads to crime or security work to express masculinity. 'Bodily capital' (muscles, toughness) becomes a symbol of status in working-class men.

Phillips and Bowling - Ethnicity, racism and the criminal justice system

Minorities face disproportionate stop and search, arrests, and harsher sentencing. Police stereotypes and institutional racism influence outcomes. CPS often drops weak, stereotype-based cases. Minorities overrepresented in prison.

Gilroy - the myth of black criminality

Black criminality is a myth shaped by racist stereotypes. Ethnic minority crime is a form of political resistance. UK policing criminalises these groups. Critics argue crime is often intra-ethnic and rates vary by group.

Hall et al - policing the crisis

1970s moral panic about black muggers helped divert attention from capitalism’s crisis. Media amplified street crime, fuelling racism and social control. Critics question the link between panic and capitalist benefit.

Cohen and Young - news values and crime coverage

News constructs crime stories using news values (e.g., immediacy, dramatisation, personalisation). Crime is not discovered but manufactured by media priorities.

Surette - fictional representations

Fictional crime differs from real stats: violent/sexual crimes are overrepresented; offenders are higher-status white men; police usually succeed. Recent media shows corrupt police and glorifies victims.

Lea and Young - media, relative deprivation and crime

Mass media spreads consumerist lifestyles, raising expectations among deprived groups. This intensifies feelings of relative deprivation, potentially leading to crime.

Cohen - moral panics - the mods and rockers

Media exaggerated 1960s youth conflicts, labelling them ‘folk devils’. Exaggeration, prediction, and symbolisation caused deviance amplification. Authorities cracked down, reinforcing stereotypes and alienation.

Castells - global criminal economy

Globalisation has produced a global criminal economy worth over £1 trillion: drugs, trafficking, cybercrime, smuggling, etc. Demand in the West fuels supply in developing countries, particularly where poverty is widespread.

Glenny - McMafia

McMafia describes post-communist criminal organisations in Russia. Deregulation led to oligarchs using mafia for protection. These economic mafias differ from traditional familial ones.

Beck - global risk society and the environment

Late modern society has created new manufactured risks, particularly environmental harms. Despite material abundance, global risks like climate change and pollution now dominate.

White - green criminology

Green criminology studies environmental harm, even when not illegal. It expands criminology beyond legal definitions, viewing harm to ecosystems as criminal behaviour (a transgressive approach).

Green and Ward - state crime

State crime includes acts committed by or with state complicity (e.g. genocide, torture). It’s the most serious crime due to scale and because states define laws, making accountability difficult.

Kramer and Michalowski - state-corporate crime

Two forms: State-initiated (e.g. Challenger disaster) and State-facilitated (e.g. Deepwater Horizon). Both result from state-business collusion, often involving deregulation and negligence.

Clarke - Situational Crime Prevention

Focuses on reducing crime opportunities via target hardening, increased effort, and reduced rewards. Seen as more effective than broad theories. Influences modern urban and policing strategies.

Felson - Environmental Design

Supports situational prevention. Poor urban design enables deviance. Example: redesigning New York Port Authority reduced public disorder. Advocates crime-conscious public space planning.

Wilson and Kelling - Broken Windows Theory

Minor disorder leads to serious crime. Visible neglect signals lack of control. Advocates zero tolerance policing to prevent decline. Influenced policing strategies worldwide.

Perry Pre-School Project

Longitudinal study in Michigan provided enriched education to disadvantaged Black children. Participants had fewer arrests and better life outcomes. Demonstrates the benefits of early intervention and community prevention.

Durkheim - Functions of Punishment

Punishment maintains social order and collective conscience. In traditional societies, it’s retributive; in modern ones, it’s restitutive. Always symbolic, reaffirming social norms and cohesion.

Tombs and Whyte - Critical Victimology

Argue that victimhood is socially constructed and influenced by power. State and corporate crime victims are often blamed or ignored. State defines legitimate victimhood to maintain power and avoid accountability.