AP PSYCH: ULTIMATE AP REVIEW

Structuralism (Wilhelm Wundt)

Focusing on the STRUCTURE of the mind and body

Introspection

Investigating one’s own emotions (writing down your feelings when a song comes on)

Functionalism (William James)

Focusing on the PURPOSE of parts. How do we use these parts to adapt?

Behavioral Approach

Focus ONLY on observable behavior. MUST be SEEN

Unconditioned Stimulus (Classical Conditioning)

Natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning (Eating Asahi)

Unconditioned Response (Classical Conditioning)

An unlearned response that is elicited by and unconditioned stimulus (Throwing up violently after eating Asahi)

Conditioned Stimulus (Classical Conditioning)

Originally the neutral stimulus, becomes conditioned (Seeing Asahi)

Conditioned Response (Classical Conditioning)

Learned response elicited by the conditioned stimulus (Getting nauseous when you pass Asahi)

Positive Reinforcement (Operant Conditioning)

Adding a pleasant stimulus (Good grade on test= m&m)

Negative Reinforcement (Operant Conditioning)

Removing an unpleasant stimulus (Perfect attendance = do not have to sit for final exam)

Positive Punishment (Operant Conditioning)

Adding an unpleasant stimulus (after Liz gets up 18 times in class, she gets a slap in the face)

Negative Punishment (Operant Conditioning)

Removing a pleasant stimulus (you disobeyed me, I am taking the car away)

Token Economy

Receiving something for a behavior that is wanted.

Primary vs Secondary Reinforcer

Primary Reinforcer: (food, water, etc.) Secondary: (money, etc.)

Over-justification Effect

When you enjoy doing something but then get paid to do it, your motivation goes down.

Psychoanalytical

Freud, UNCONSCIOUS MIND

ID

unconscious, what you want to say and do (bottom of iceberg)

Superego

filter, reality

Ego

Reality (top of iceberg)

Archetypes

Figures from history that show up time and time again

Karen Horney

Claimed that men have womb envy

Humanistic Approach

Humans are good, and they can reach their potential if they want to. All about self-growth

Abraham Maslow

Hierarchy of needs



Self-actualization: What is my purpose in life?



Physiological: Safety, social, self, self-actualization



Therapy: Client centered (Unconditional positive regard) Mirroring.

Biological Approach

The stem of psychology is in the body, genetics, neurotransmitters, hormones… DNA, genes, the brain

Cognitive Approach

THINKING! The root of all problems is due to one’s though process.

Evolutionary Approach

ADAPTIVE BEHAVIORS: Why do certain traits get passed down from generation to generation?

Sociocultural Approach

How do OTHERS impact our behavior? Obedience (Milgram Shock Experiment), Conformity (Solomon Asch Line Test), Stanford Prison Experiment, Zimbardo

Albert Ellis

Rational emotive behavioral therapy

Aaron Beck

Father of Cognitive Therapy

Metacognition

thinking about thinking

Eclectic Approach

A mixture of different approaches

Case Studies

A unique study about a particular issue, once in a lifetime study (Genie)

Naturalistic Observation

Studying a patient/subject in their own environment without them knowing.

Surveys

Questionnaires, interviews, asking questions about a particular subject, beware of social desirability bias.

Correlation Research Methods

Form of research in which different groups compared, but cause and effect CANNOT be determined. CORRELATION IS NOT CAUSATION.

Charted with a scatterplot

Correlational coefficient is between

1 and 1.0 \= NO RELATIONSHIP

experimental research

CAUSE AND EFFECT!

Independent variable

(the IF of an experiment. IF I drink Red Bull before a test, I will perform better) what is being manipulated.

Dependent variable

what is being measured. Red Bull experiment (TEST SCORES is your DV).

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

how are we measuring the dependent variable?

Experimental Group

GETS the independent variable. They receive the Red Bull in the example above.

Control Group

does not receive the IV but has to THINK that they are. Placebo?

Random Sampling

Does the group of participants include a wide variety of people? Sampling bias

Random Assignment

How were the people assigned to the different groups? (I would achieve random assignment by picking out of a hat, rolling the dice, flipping the coin…)

Double-Blind Study

When neither the experimenter nor the subject know which group the subject is in

Placebo

Control group, “fake pill.” You need for the control group to think that they are in the experimental group

Hindsight Bias

“I knew it all along,” bias. The tendency to falsely report, after the event, that we correctly knew what the results before it happened

Overconfidence

When we are overconfident about our findings. Linked to hindsight bias

Debriefing

(let the participants know what they just took part in. Essential if you deceived!).

Informed consent

they know that they are a part of the experiment

Cannot reveal the names of participants

Are allowed to leave when they want

Do no harm

Acquisition

Learning a new reaction to a previously neutral stimulus

Extinction

When a learned response is eliminated

Spontaneous Recovery

After extinction, when a learned response re-emerges

Discrimination

Specially having a response to a stimulus. If the dogs ONLY drooled at Pavlov’s bell… but not at a doorbell)

Generalization

Having a variety of similar stimuli (when they salivate at all bells, Little Albert (white rats))

Shaping

Giving positive reinforcement for behaviors (A little at a time)

Over Justification Effect

When you get paid for doing something, your desire weakens.
Partial Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed Ratio

A set number of attempts-think factory worker meeting their quota.

Variable Ratio

A random number of attempts in between reinforcement- think playing the slots at a casino.

Variable Interval

Random time in between reinforcement- think fishing and pop-quizzes.

Fixed Interval

Set number of times in between reinforcement- think getting paid every two weeks.

Observational Learning (Bandura and “Bobo doll” experiment)

We learn by observing others and how they do things. Bandura had parents beat up a doll and watch as kids also beat up the same doll.

Context Effect

Influence of environmental factors of one’s perception of a stimulus. You are more likely to remember something if you try and remember in the same way. If you are more likely to remember something WHERE you learn it ( If you take the AP in the Psych room then you are more likely to remember).

Encoding

First step in creating a memory. Allows the item of interest to be converted to a construct that can be stored in the brain.

Hippocampus

If you saw a hippo on campus, you’d remember it

Storage

Process of placing newly acquired information into memory, which is modified in the brain for easier storage.

Retrieval

Recall of a memory, re accessing of events in the past

Mnemonic Devices

Memory aid, PEMDAS (A lot like the Loci method used to help remember epics in the Ancient Times)

Spacing Effect

It is better to spread out things over time, you are more likely to remember it. Cramming before a test \= BAD. Start studying now.

Serial Position Effect

We are more likely to remember items at the beginning (primacy) or end (recency) of a list. Ben and Jerry’s Ice cream activity.

Proactive Interference

When something you learned earlier disrupts with the recall of something you learned later. You keep calling your teacher by their OLD last name, not their new last name.

Retroactive Interference

When something that you recently learned disrupts your ability to remember old information. You changed your phone pass code and now cannot remember your old pass code.

Forgetting Curve

Ebbinghaus forgetting curve, we forget items/things almost immediately.

Achievement tests (AP exams)

Tests intelligence in a particular subject area. AP exams, tests…

Aptitude tests (SATs, IQ tests…)

Test used to predict learning capacity for a particular skill. Entrance exam for college?

Reliability

Are the scores consistent? Is the grading consistent?

Validity

Does it measure what it’s supposed to measure?

Factor Analysis

Statistical procedure to identify clusters or groups of related items. How many Operant Conditioning questions did they get wrong?

“G” Factor (Spearman)

General intelligence. Factor that underlies ALL intelligence activity. “Grade school kids routinely scored within the same ranges across the subjects.”

Gardiner’s Multiple Intelligences

Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Musical, Linguistic, Nature, Mathematical

Emotional Intelligence

Considered to be a different form of intelligence, being able to identify people’s (and one’s own) emotions.

Fundamental Attribution Error

we (the observer) overestimates personal disposition and underestimates situational dispositions. You say hi to your crush Doug, and he blows you off. You respond by saying, “What a jerk!” but you didn’t know that he is having the worst day of his life.

“Foot in the Door” Phenomenon

asking for a little, then asking for more. Can I have $5? Actually, I need another $10 for Trent’s birthday party…”

Door in the face

asking for a lot but settling for less.

Cognitive dissonance

conflicting thoughts cause tension (dissonance). We need to eliminate one of those thoughts, so we do so by changing our thought processes (I cannot believe that Suzie dumped me! Oh well, she was a loser with no friends anyway) (I left the dip out last night, and now it’s spoiled. Oh well, I was going to throw it out anyway)

Group polarization

we are more likely to make a rash decision while within a group

Groupthink

we are more likely to keep our thoughts to ourself to maintain cohesiveness in a group (your friends all want to go to SaVino’s for lunch, but you don’t want to. However, you stay silent to maintain group cohesiveness)

Social facilitation

we perform certain tasks better when we are being watched by people

De individuation

we lose our identity when we are within a group

Social loafing

when we try less when we are within a group. Group projects!

Asch Line Experiment

conformity (line test). When we conform within a group (Brain Games episode…)

Milgram Experiment

obedience! We are most likely to follow orders when someone in “authority” gives them to us

Case Study

An in-depth examination of a rare phenomenon that occurred with an individual small group or situation

Naturalistic Observation

Watching participants in their natural environment

Correlation Research

* To show the relationship between two variables
* Correlation is not causation

Random Sampling

A subset of people in the population chosen at random

Random Assignment

creating multiple study groups with participants with similar characteristics

Double-blind study

When neither the participants nor the researchers know which treatment or intervention participants are receiving until the trial is over

Placebo

An inactive substance that looks like a drug or treatment being tested

Sympathetic Nervous System

The system responsible for the responses when your body gets aroused (increase of heart rate, digestive system, stc.)

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calm your body down after it goes into fight or flight